Constans II › Constantine I › The Tomb of King Muryeong » Origins and History
Articles and Definitions › Contents
- Constans II › Who Was
- Constantine I › Who Was
- The Tomb of King Muryeong › Origins
Ancient civilizations › Historical places, and their characters
Constans II › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Constans II (aka Konstans II) was emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 641 to 668 CE. Sometimes known as Constans Pogonatos (“the Bearded”), he came to the throne by a series of unlikely events and his empire was immediately challenged almost everywhere by the rising Arab Caliphate. He attempted to end the Church's divisive debate on Christ's nature and will but succeeded in only antagonising the Popes and ensuring his name would be denigrated by Christian historians thereafter.Like so many of his predecessors, he faced endless revolts and usurpers and met his death at the hands of an assassin while taking a bath.
SUCCESSION
Heraclius had ruled as emperor since 610 CE, and his reign was a mixed one. He had rescued the empire from disaster when Constantinople was besieged in 626 CE but had lost Jerusalem to the Persians. Victory at Nineveh put the empire back on its feet, but the new threat was the Arab Caliphate which showed its intent by crushing a Byzantine army at Yarmuk in 636 CE.Rumours spread that the Byzantines were suffering the wrath of God, angry at the emperor's incestuous marriage to his own niece Martina.
When Heraclius died in 641 CE, he had two heirs who ruled as co-emperors: Heraklonas (whose mother was Martina) and Constantine III (whose mother was Heraclius' first wife Eudokia). When Constantine died in mysterious circumstances a few months later, Martina was able to act as regent for her son Heraklonas, even declaring herself co-emperor. Defeats to the Arabs continued as before, and the imminent loss of Alexandria allowed one Valentinos Arsakuni, a military governor of the Opsikion province, to capitalise on Martina's unpopularity and take power for himself in September 641 CE. A few months later, Valentinos was removed and killed by a lynch mob who favoured a properly royal ruler, the son of Constantine III, Flavius Heraclius, better known by his nickname Constans. The legitimate line had been restored, but the new emperor was a mere 11 years of age and the empire was in disarray.
CONSTANS II HAD LITTLE TIME TO WARM THE SEAT OF HIS THRONE BEFORE HE HAD TO DEAL WITH THE EVER-EXPANDING ARAB CALIPHATE.
MILITARY CAMPAIGNS
Constans II had little time to warm the seat of his throne before he, and the Senate acting as his regent, had to deal with the ever-expanding Arab Caliphate. Alexandria fell in 642 CE, and losses followed in Armenia in the same year. The former was the more serious as it was the richest province in the empire and the most important source of grain. In 647 CE the Arabs overran Carthage in North Africa and parts of Asia Minor, notably capturing Caesarea. In 649 CE Cyprus was attacked, one of the empire's major naval bases, and though the island remained a shared property thereafter, the Arabs managed to sack the capital Constantia and destroy the harbour installations.
Next, Crete, Kos, and Rhodes all fell to Arab raids in 654 CE. The Byzantine Empire was crumbling at the edges, there were revolts in North Africa and Italy, and Constans could have been forgiven for thinking it could not possibly get any worse. In 655 CE it did. Sailing with a Byzantine fleet, the emperor was horrified to see an Arab armada bearing down on him off the coast of Phoenix (modern Finike) in Lycia. Only by switching clothes with an ordinary seaman did Constans escape while the entire fleet (and the unfortunate seaman) were sent to the bottom of the Mediterranean.
The Byzantine Empire, c. 650 CE.
Then, from 656 CE, relief came from an unlikely source. The Arabs imploded in a bloody civil war which would last until 661 CE and divert their attention from further foreign conquests. In 659 CE a peace was signed between the two powers with the Byzantines having to pay a massive tribute. While the Caliphate was busy deciding who should be the next caliph, Constans did not waste any time and invaded northern Greece. The captured Slavs from that campaign were forcibly relocated to Asia Minor and then conscripted into the Byzantine army. Perhaps predictably, at the first opportunity, 5,000 of the Slav soldiers defected to the Arabs in 665 CE. Meanwhile, Constans' campaigns against the Lombards in Italy in 663 CE did not make much headway, although Sardinia had been held in 645 CE.
RELIGIOUS INTERVENTION
In 648 CE Constans passed an imperial edict, the Typos, which was designed to pacify the opponents of Monotheletism (that Christ had a single will) in the Church and close the endless and harmful debate that had been raging for half a century. Rather ambitiously, the edict simply forbade any discussion on the issue: bishops would be dismissed and laymen flogged and exiled if they did. In the long-running saga which split the eastern and western branches of the Church over ecclesiastical doctrine, the edict was condemned by Pope Martin I in 649 CE.
THE EMPEROR ATTEMPTED SOME SORT OF RECONCILIATION WITH THE POPE & CAME BEARING GIFTS WHICH INCLUDED A GOLD PALLIUM.
The Popes were keen to maintain their own ascendancy over Constantinople in deciding matters of dogma and Martin excommunicated the bishop of Constantinople. Constans responded by having the Constantinople Senate declare the Pope guilty of treason and exiling Martin to Cherson in the Crimea in 654 CE on the excuse that he had supported Olympios, the rebel governor of Byzantine Ravenna. Maximos the Confessor, a vocal supporter of Martin and opponent of Monotheletism, was also exiled, in his case to Lazika on the eastern shores of the Black Sea. Constans was, nevertheless, received by the new Pope Vitalian in Rome on a visit in 663 CE. The emperor attempted some sort of reconciliation and came bearing gifts which included a gold pallium or cloth; then he promptly stripped the city of as much bronze he could find, spiriting away statues and even the bronze roof tiles of churches and the copper roofing of the Pantheon.
DEATH & SUCCESSOR
In 663 CE Constans took up permanent residence in Syracuse on Sicily. The emperor considered moving his capital to his new home for greater safety, but this met obvious disapproval from the aristocracy at Constantinople with the Senate even forbidding any imperial family members from joining the emperor in Sicily. The debate ended when Constans was killed in his bath by one of his own military entourage on 15 September 668 CE, with the inglorious weapon, a soap dish. Not particularly popular (either at home or in Syracuse), subject to several rebellions, despised by half the Church and with too many failures on the battlefield, he would not be missed by many, but he had, at the very least, ensured there was still an empire to pass on to his successors. Constans was succeeded by his son, Constantine IV, who had already been crowned co-emperor in 654 CE and who would rule until 685 CE.
Constantine I › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Constantine I was Roman emperor from 306 to 337 CE. Realizing that the Roman Empire was too large for one man to adequately rule, Emperor Diocletian (284-305 CE) split the empire into two, creating a tetrachy or rule of four. While he ruled the east from Nicomedia as an “ augustus ” with Galerius as his “ caesar,” Maximian and Constantius the Pale ruled the west. It was the son of Constantius, Constantine, who would one day rise to defeat all challengers to the throne and reunite the split empire, moving the capital away from Old Rome and build a new capital, a capital that one day would bear his name, Constantinople.
EARLY LIFE
Although sources vary on the exact year of his birth, Constantine (Gaius Flavis Valerius Constantinus) was born at Naissus in present day Serbia as early as 272 CE or as late as 285 CE. Since his father was not only a military commander but also the caesar of the west, Constantine lived his entire early life in the imperial court, eventually serving as a high ranking staff officer for Diocletian. Even in his youth, those around him saw Constantine as a man of boundless energy. Under the emperor's tutelage, he learned that a ruler's job was to defend the empire from any external force and create a just and ordered society - something Constantine would put into practice when he became emperor himself.
In May of 305 CE Diocletian and Maximian both abdicated their thrones to Galerius in the east (with Maximinus Daia as caesar) and Constantius in the west (with Falvius Valerius Servius as caesar). These appointments were not popular with everyone. Maxentius, the son of Maximian, and Constantine felt betrayed, each believing he deserved the appointment as caesar. This omission would not be forgotten and would eventually lead to a long, bitterly fought battle over control of both halves of the empire. After Diocletian abdicated, Galerius (in an attempt to appease bitter feelings) permitted the disappointed Constantine to return to the west in 306 CE to serve under his father. Before Constantius succumbed to leukemia (the reason he was called “the Pale”) in July of 306 CE at York, Constantine had the opportunity to campaign with his father in Britainagainst the Picts. It was in Britain that the newly appointed augustus earned the title “Britannicus Maximus” for the second time.
AFTER HIS FATHER'S DEATH CONSTANTINE CONTINUED TO BUILD A REPUTATION AS A MAN CAPABLE OF RAPID AND DECISIVE ACTION.
After his father's death Constantine continued to build a reputation as a man capable of rapid and decisive action when in 307 CE he attacked the Franks. It was here that he proved he could act without mercy when he killed two Frankish kings by throwing them to beasts in the amphitheatre at Trier. However, he could also show compassion as when he restored church property that had earlier been confiscated. Slowly he gained the respect of the army, demonstrating to his men, even those older and more experienced, they could trust him.
With the death of Constantius and the success of the war in Britain, many expected Constantine to be named the new augustus in the west; however, Severus (caesar and close friend of Galerius) was promoted to the position, despite the claim that Constantius had named his son as augustus on his deathbed. Regardless of the official decree, Constantine was declared augustus by his men. Galerius, however, refused to recognize this declaration, naming himself caesar instead. Not to be overlooked, Maxentius, who had also been overlooked in 305 CE, ignored both Galerius and Constantine and declared himself augustus in October of 307 CE. With the support of the people of Rome and the Praetorian Guard, he controlled Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and parts of North Africa. Eventually, as many as six different people would eventually claim control in the west.
Because of his friendship to Galerius, Severus was distrusted by both Constantine and Constantine's brother-in-law Maxentius, and in order to defeat the new augustus, they allied themselves with the former augustus Maximian and joined forces against Severus. Unfortunately for Severus, who had received orders to stop Maxentius, his army deserted him (having been bribed by Maxentius). Fearing for his life, he fled to Ravenna, only to be captured and killed outside Rome. His death prompted Galerius to unsuccessfully invade the west with an army. In 308 CE a new tetrachy was formed (with the advice of Diocletian) with Licinius (an Illyrian army officer and friend of Galerius) as the new augustus and Constantine retaining his position as the caesar. To add to the confusion, Maximian (who had been living at Constantine's court as an advisor) came out of retirement in 310 CE, announcing himself as the new augustus, claiming Constantine was dead. Constantine, who had been away fighting the Franks, hunted him down outside Marseilles (the city had refused to grant him assistance), and in desperation Maximian hanged himself.
Meanwhile, Maxentius's tenure in Rome was waning. He had lost his popularity with the citizens of Rome - overtaxing them in order to build a new basilica and a large statue of himself. His contempt for the people had resulted in a series of riots which only ended with the massacre of several thousand Romans. Constantine waited patiently and watched as the empire in the west began to self-destruct then, gathering an army of forty thousand, he crossed the Alps and invaded Italy.
Arch of Constantine I
CONSTANTINE BECOMES EMPEROR
With little support in the city, Maxentius left Rome to meet Constantine in one final, crucial battle - the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 CE. On the day before the battle began, Constantine reportedly looked to the sky where he saw the sign of the cross superimposed over the sun. Under it was the inscription In Hoc Signo Vinae or “ conquer by this sign.” That night, in a dream, he received an explanation of the sign - Christ appeared before him telling him to carry the sign of the cross into battle. The following day old banners were replaced with new ones displaying the sign of the cross. Although outnumbered, Constantine easily defeated Maxentius who fled back to Rome, however, before reaching the city, he fell into the river and drowned; his body was discovered the next morning among the corpses of many others. This victory is seen by historians as a turning point in history, a fusion of church and state. Constantine immediately assumed complete control of the west. As the new augustus in the west, he marched into Rome; one of his first acts was to issue the Edict of Milan, a toleration of all religions (it would later be co-signed by Licinius).
In the east Galerius and Maximinus Daia were serving as augustus and caesar. After Galerius died from cancer (on his deathbed he rescinded all anti-Christian edicts), Maximinus and Licinius fought for control of the east, eventually splitting that part of the empire between them - Licinius got the Balkans while Maximinus got Asia Minor and the eastern provinces. This arrangement was not to last and in 313 CE the two fought on the plains of Thrace. Like Constantine at Milvian Bridge, Licinius fought under the sign of the cross; however, he did it not because of his faith but only to gain the support of the Christians; his opponent, Maximinus, had promised to eradicate them. Despite inferior numbers, Licinius was victorious, and after the suicide of Maximinus, seized control of the east. To be safe and secure in his right to the throne, he immediately executed the sons of both Galerius and Severus, the family of Maximinus, and even Diocletian's daughter.
An uneasy truce existed between Licinius and Constantine, partially because Licinius had married Constantine's half-sister Constantia. In their first meeting on the battlefield In October of 316 CE Constantine defeated him at Cibalae. A second battle near Hadrianopolis ended with land cessions in the Balkans to Constantine. Over the next few years, Licinius's attitude towards the Christians changed with both executions and the destruction of several Christian churches. This was enough to prompt Constantine to gather an army and defeat Licinius in a second battle at Hadrianopolis. The defeated commander fled the battlefield, escaping against the Bosporus. In September of 324 CE Licinius was finally defeated at Chrysopolis and surrendered. Licinius hoped to return to life as a private citizen which Constantine initially granted, but he went back on his word, and Licinius was hanged in 325 CE - even his nine-year-old son was killed. Constantine's victory would reunite the empire.
BYZANTIUM
The fifty-two year old Constantine was now the sole emperor of the empire and with it a sense of stability returned.Constantine realized that Old Rome was not the city he wanted for a capital, and despite several of the building projects he instituted, it was decaying. Rome was no longer practical (Constantine even disbanded the Praetorian Guard), and Nicomedia was never considered, for it had been the capital of Diocletian. A new capital was needed, and although he thought about the site of ancient Troy, Constantine finally saw what he wanted - Byzantium. The ancient city was strategically located on the European side of the Strait of Bosporus, so it would control traffic to and from the Black Sea. It also provided an excellent harbor (The Golden Horn) and, therefore, could be easily defended.
To rebuild the city into the one in his vision, he brought in artisans and resources from across the empire. There were wide avenues with statues of Alexander, Caesar, Augustus, Diocletian, and of course, Constantine. He rebuilt the walls, built cisterns, Christian churches (Hagia Irene) and pagan temples. It was a city that remained classical yet inspired by a Christian god. In 330 CE the city was finally dedicated.
Map of Byzantine Constantinople
CONSTANTINE & CHRISTIANITY
During his years of warfare in the west he had always demonstrated religious tolerance with both pagans and Christians (he claimed to be a Christian since 312 CE). His mother Helena was a devout Christian, and after Constantine became emperor, he sent her on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land where she had built the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. Although he had been a worshipper of the sun-god in his youth and while some claim he did not become baptized until his deathbed, he still gave every indication that he was a devoted Christian. He is even credited by many historians with making Christianity the official religion of the empire (although others credit Emperor Theodosius), despite the fact that pagan symbols of Sol Invictus and Mars appeared on his coins. While he tolerated certain pagan religious practices, pagan sacrifices were forbidden, templetreasures seized, gladiatorial contests ended (Christians disliked them), crucifixions were abolished, and laws were enacted against sexual immorality and ritual prostitution.
In 325 CE Constantine invited clerics from across the empire to a conference at Nicaea where he made a plea for unity. The result of the conference was not only a condemnation of Arianism but also the Nicene Creed, a definition of what it meant to be a Christian. One year later, in 326 CE, Constantine had his religious faith tested when he had his own son Crispus (from his first wife Minervina) killed - falsely accused of adultery. According to sources, Constantine's second wife Fausta made the accusations against Crispus, who had fought beside his father and governed the western provinces, because she was in love with him but he had rejected her. She later committed suicide when it was proven that the accusations were false. Constantine regretted the action for the remainder of his life.
DEATH
Constantine maintained his role as a military commander, fighting the Alemani in 328 CE with the assistance of his son Constantius II, defeating the Goths in 332 CE by starving them into submission, and lastly, capturing lost territories from the Dacians (territories that were later lost after his death). His last wish was to conquer neighbouring Persia after their king Shapur II had invaded Armenia. However, it was not to be. In 337 CE Constantine fell ill and died. He had ruled for thirty-one years. He was buried at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, leaving his empire in the hands of his three sons - Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans with Constantius II eventually defeating his brothers and ruling the entire empire by himself.
The Tomb of King Muryeong › Origins
Ancient Civilizations
The tomb of king Muryeong is perhaps one of the most impressive tombs from the Baekje kingdom of ancient Korea, both in its design and the treasure found inside it. Muryeong-Wang (also Munyeong or Muryong) reigned from 501 to 523 CE. Baekje (aka Paekche ) was one of the Three Kingdoms which ruled over ancient Korea from the 1st century BCE to the 7th century CE. Traditionally founded in 18 BCE, Baekje controlled territory in the south-western part of the peninsula and was in constant rivalry with the other two kingdoms of the period: Silla and Goguryeo. Muryeong's reign, however, benefitted from an alliance between Baekje and the Silla kingdom which had been formed in 433 CE and would last over a century until 553 CE. During this relatively stable century, Baekje enjoyed its greatest period of prosperity. The king's tomb is a lasting example of the wealth of Baekje at this time and its design and contents illustrate close cultural ties with both China and Japan.
Tomb of Muryeong-Wang
EIGHT ITEMS FROM THE TOMB, INCLUDING THE GOLD CROWNS, FEATURE ON THE OFFICIAL LIST OF NATIONAL TREASURES OF KOREA.
Muryeong was the 25th king of Baekje, and he managed to increase the central control of his government over his kingdom and conquer the state of Tamna based on Cheju Island and parts of the Gaya ( Kaya ) kingdom. Another element of foreign policy was to foster closer ties with the Liang dynasty of southern China. Having reigned for 22 years, Muryeong died in May 523 CE. His tomb befits such a successful monarch and is located near the Baekje capital of Ungjin (modern Gongju/Kongju).Ungjin had replaced Hansong (modern Kwangju) as the capital in 475 BCE but was itself later replaced by the more favourably positioned Sabi (modern Buyeo/Puyo) in 538 CE.
The tomb was constructed in 525 CE, as indicated by a stone inscription plaque within the tomb. The inscription is written in haeso (cursive style) calligraphy and also mentions that in order to use the land for the tomb a 'contract' was made with the local earth spirits, which was also a custom in ancient China. To 'pay' for the land Chinese coins of the Liang dynasty were left on top of the plaque. The queen joined her husband upon her death in 529 CE, and her epitaph is inscribed on the reverse side of the inscription plaque.
Baekje Gold Crown Ornaments
The tomb was discovered unlooted in 1971 CE and forms a huge earth mound with a horizontal entrance facing south. The burial chamber within the mound is rectangular, and through the arched entrance passage, it opens to a semi-circular vault lined with hundreds of moulded bricks, many decorated with Buddhist lotus flower motifs and geometric designs. A similar type of tomb design is seen in Liang China. The walls have large niches constructed in the form of flames and each contained a lamp made from a celadon (greenware) bowl of Chinese origin. The king and queen were placed inside lacquered coffins with the body resting on a lacquered head and foot rest.
The artefacts found within the tomb include gilt-bronze crowns which have a form which probably imitates trees, an important motif in Shamanistic art. Separate large flat floral ornaments rendered in gold and discovered in the tomb support ancient text descriptions (as, for example, in the 10th-century CE Jiu Tang shu or 'Book of Old Tang') of Baekje kings and queens wearing such embellishments fixed into the band of their gold crowns. These additions have a flame-like appearance which echo the tomb's wall niches and are reminiscent of those mandalas sometimes found on Buddhist figure sculptures.
Baekje Gold Earrings
Besides crowns, the tomb contained decorated earrings and bracelets made of gold and two bracelets of silver decorated with dragons and inscribed with their weight and the name of the Baekje silversmith Dari, whose name also appears on the Sakyamuni triad ( Buddha and two attendants) from the Horyuji temple in Ikaruga, Japan. Other items include a gold hairpin in the form of a bird in flight, a bronze wine cup with a silver lid which has dragon and lotus petals decoration, jade pendants, a glass figurine of a boy, spiked shoes, bronze handheld mirrors, and an iron sword with ornate handle. The crowns and jewellery pieces are all of local manufacture but do show similarities with precious goods in southern Japanese tombs and perhaps illustrate the close relationship between Baekje and Wa (Wae) Japan. Eight items from the tomb, including the gold crowns, feature on the official list of National Treasures of Korea.
This article was made possible with generous support from the British Korean Society.
LICENSE
Article based on information obtained from these sources:with permission from the Website Ancient History Encyclopedia
Content is available under License Creative Commons: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported. CC-BY-NC-SA License