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Tale of Genji › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The 'Tale of the Genji' or Genji Monogatari, written in the 11th century CE by Murasaki Shikibu, a court lady, is Japan 's oldest novel and possibly the first novel in world literature. The classic of Japanese literature, the work describes the life and loves of Prince Genji and is noted for its rich characterisation and vivid descriptions of life in the Japanese imperial court. The work famously reproduces the line 'the sadness of things' over 1,000 times and has been tremendously influential on Japanese literature and thinking ever since it was written. The ' Tale of Genji ' continues to be retranslated into modern Japanese on a regular basis so that its grip on the nation's imagination shows no sign of loosening.
MURASAKI SHIKIBU
The work's author is considered to be a lady of the imperial court by the name of Murasaki Shikibu who wrote it over several years and completed it around 1020 CE during the Heian period (794-1185 CE). Murasaki is also known as To no Shikibu.Murasaki was a nickname and shikibu means 'secretariat,' which was the role of her father as in ancient Japan it was common to call a daughter by her father's position. She was a member of the Fujiwara clan. Her birth is accepted as around 973 CE and her death after 1013 CE, the date of the last mention of her in court documents. Details of her life are sketchy except that her father was Fujiwara no Tametoki, a provincial governor, and that she married a fellow Fujiwara clan member, one Fujiwara no Nobutaka, with whom she had one daughter, Daini no Sammi. Murasaki's husband died in 1001 CE, and she then became a lady-in-waiting ( nyobo ) to Empress Akiko (aka Shoshi) where she displayed great talent in the arts, particularly calligraphy, the harp ( koto ), painting, and poetry. Besides the novel, other surviving works by Murasaki include poems and her diary.
THE NOVEL DESCRIBES LIFE IN THE JAPANESE IMPERIAL COURT, ITS ETIQUETTE & INTRIGUES, &, ABOVE ALL, THE CENTRAL CHARACTER OF PRINCE GENJI.
GENJI MONOGATARI
The Japanese title Genji Monogatari may be translated as 'The Tale of Prince Genji.' It consists of 54 chapters and 750,000 words, although the final 13 chapters are regarded as a later addition by a minority of scholars principally because the story then no longer concerns Genji but his son Kaoru and takes on a darker tone. Neither do scholars entirely agree on the order of the chapters as many seem like later insertions by the author and several are parallel chapters or narabi where events occur not after but contemporary with the events described in earlier 'ordinary' chapters ( hon no maki ).
The novel describes life in the Japanese imperial court, its etiquette and intrigues, and, above all, the central character of Prince Genji who is the perfect gentleman in looks and deed. Genji's relations, love affairs, and transition from youth to middle age are all captured by Murasaki's astute writing which combines romanticism and realism in equal measure to capture a timeless treatment of human relations and the general impermanence of all things. The following summary highlights the Genji Monogatari 's contribution to world literature:
Earlier "novels" had too closely resembled fairy tales, or else were realistic but had no feeling for the complexity and capacity for development of their characters. Murasaki Shikibu's book, though imaginative fiction, is both descriptively and psychologically true to life. It deals with society as it was and people as they were. This remarkable woman had independently developed the novel as a true literary form. (Mason, 96)
In her own words Murasaki describes this discovery:
But I have a theory of my own about what this art of the novel is...it happens because the storyteller's own experience of men and things, whether for good or ill - not only what he has passed through himself, but even events which he has only witnessed or been told of - has moved him to an emotion so passionate that he can no longer keep it shut up in his heart. Again and again something in his own life or that around him will seem to the writer so important that he cannot bear to let it pass into oblivion. (Mason, 96)
The book is written in a notoriously complex style with frequent poetic ambiguity and over 800 inserted poems, but it was an instant success and quickly gained its reputation as a timeless classic. It has been read, studied, alluded to, quoted extensively, and imitated in countless subsequent Japanese literary works and theatre ever since. Beautiful editions were made with painted illustrations besides the calligraphy, an art, of course, in itself. Indeed, the oldest scroll paintings ( onnae ) from Japan, and some would say the finest, are 19 illustrations (each 21.8 cms high) from an abridged edition of the GenjiMonagatari believed to have been painted in the 1120s or 1130s CE.
Scene from the Tale of Genji
THE TALE OF GENJI: A SUMMARY
Part 1
The 'Tale of Genji' covers the lifetime of Prince Genji and then his descendants, which is a period of some 70 years. The story is set at the height of the Heian period during the reign of Emperor Daigo, 897-930 CE. Prince Hikaru Genji is the son of an emperor but not in direct line to the throne. Although Genji is a fictional character there was a similar figure with a similar story in the imperial court, one Minamoto no Takaakira, the tenth son of Emperor Daigo, and he would have been known both to Murasaki and her readers.
We begin with the birth of Genji and are informed that his mother, Kiritsubo, has a low status at court and is mistreated by the emperor's other wives. Kiritsubo dies when Genji is only three. An expert in divination from Korea predicts that if ever Genji acquires the throne the state will suffer a disaster. Kokiden, consort of the emperor, is also a jealous enemy of Genji. The emperor responds to the prophecy by making the prince a commoner with the surname Minamoto or Genji. However, the emperor loves Genji very much and permits him to reside in the royal palace.
GENJI: 'IF IT WEREN'T FOR OLD ROMANCES LIKE THIS, HOW ON EARTH WOULD YOU GET THROUGH THESE LONG TEDIOUS DAYS WHEN TIME MOVES SO SLOWLY?' (KEENE, 491)
The emperor then finds a woman, Fujitsubo, who closely resembles Kiritsubo, and invites her to court to be his first consort. A real beauty, Genji falls desperately in love with his stepmother but, aged 12, he marries Aoi, six years his senior. Bewitched by Fujitsubo, Genji's marriage is a failure. He has numerous affairs, most significantly with a lowly girl called Murasaki who resembles Fujitsubo and who he will later marry. Genji has two sons, one with Aoi, called Yugiri, and another with his stepmother, who, recognised as the emperor's own, will become the future Emperor Reizei. Genji is ashamed of his affair with Fujitsubo, but when Reizei discovers his true father, he gives Genji the great honour of a rank equal to that of a retired emperor. This is recompense for Genji's earlier exile to Suma (where he whiled away the time in an affair with the Lady of Akashi, the former governor's daughter).
Genji & Lady Rokujo: "At last the night ended in such a dawn as seemed to have been fashioned for their especial delight. 'Sad is any parting at the red of dawn; but never since the world began, gleamed day so tragically in the autumn sky', and as he recited these verses, aghast to leave her, he stood hesitating and laid her hand tenderly in his." (Keene, 499)
THE AUTUMN FLOWERS WERE FADING; ALONG THE REEDS BY THE RIVER THE SHRILL VOICES OF MANY INSECTS BLENDED WITH THE MOURNFUL FLUTING OF THE WIND IN THE PINES. (KEENE, 498)
Part 2
Emperor Suzaku, now retired, asks Genji to marry his third daughter as he is concerned for her future well-being. Genji, whose first wife Aoi died in childbirth thanks to the evil wishes of a former lover Lady Rokujo, consents to the request, but the girl is also the niece of Fujitsubo. Genji's other wife Murasaki is jealous despite Genji's explanation for his actions and repetition of his feelings for her, his true love. Nevertheless, Murasaki expresses a wish to become a nun but first falls ill and dies.Meanwhile, the princess has an affair with Kashiwagi, the son of Genji's best friend To no Chujo. Genji is then forced to accept into his family the child which results from this illicit liaison, Kaoru.
Part 3
The final part of the book, comprising 10 chapters often called the Uji chapters (the location of this part of the story), is set after the death of Genji and relates the problems and intrigues which beset his descendants, in particular, Kaoru his son and Niou, Genji's grandson. Both of these men, after dallying with two princesses, Oigimi and Nakanokimi, fall in love with the same woman, Ukifune, half-sister to the princesses. Both male characters pale in comparison to the superlative character of Genji.Ukifune, caught in an impossible situation, attempts suicide but fails and becomes a nun, refusing to see her former lovers.There the tale ends.
This article was made possible with generous support from the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation.
The Pillow Book › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Pillow Book ( Makura no Soshi ) is a personalised account of life at the Japanese court by Sei Shonagon which she completed c. 1002 CE during the Heian Period. The book is full of humorous observations ( okashi ) written in the style of a diary, an approach known as zuihitsu -style ('rambling') of which The Pillow Book was the first and greatest example.
SEI SHONAGON
Sei Shonagon was a lady of the Japanese imperial court. Her surname is not her actual name but refers to her role, or more likely the role of her husband, as a 'lesser counsellor' or shonagon. Her family name was Kiyohara, her father being Kiyohara no Motosuke (908-990 CE) who was himself a waka poet of some repute and co-author of Gosenshu, an imperial anthology.Her grandfather, Kiyohara no Fukayabu, was an even more renowned poet. Sei Shonagon was born c. 966 CE, was married at least twice and was known to have visited certain Buddhist and Shinto sacred sites and temples.
Sei Shonagon was part of a wider group of literary ladies employed to educate Teishi (976-1001 CE), one of the wives of Emperor Ichijo. Sei Shonagon joined the court in 993 CE, and she describes her early experience there as follows:
When I first went into waiting at Her Majesty's Court, so many different things embarrassed me that I could not even reckon them up and I was always on the verge of tears. As a result I tried to avoid appearing before the Empress except at night, and even then I stayed hidden behind a three-foot curtain of state. (Keene, 413)
One of Shonagon's literary rivals and lady at the second imperial court, that of Shoshi (Akiko), was Murasaki Shikibu, authoress of the classic Tale of Genji. Shikibu was scathing of Shonagon's literary skills in her own diary: "She thought herself so clever, and littered her writings with Chinese characters, but if you examined them closely, they left a great deal to be desired" (Ebrey, 199). Still, Shikibu was not above borrowing images and scenes from The Pillow Book for her own work. It is conceivable that Genji was a response to Shonagon's work given the rivalry between the two royal courts when, unusually, there were two reigning empresses.
"I WROTE DOWN, IN A SPIRIT OF FUN & WITHOUT HELP FROM ANYONE ELSE, WHATEVER HAPPENED TO SUGGEST ITSELF TO ME." SEI SHONAGON
THE PILLOW BOOK
Title & Purpose
Although The Pillow Book is a highly personalised series of observations and musings on court life, where the author often employs the aesthetic technique of okashi with its objective of providing witty and surprising revelations, it does give invaluable insight into the protocols, etiquette and behaviour of the Japanese aristocracy in the Heian Period (794-1185 CE). It is written in the style known as zuihitsu meaning 'following the calligrapher's brush' or 'rambling,' and so some of the 300 plus entries are only a single sentence while others can cover a few pages. They are not presented in any particular order, and it is quite possible that later scribes reshuffled the various entries. As the author herself writes:
As a matter of fact, I wrote down, in a spirit of fun and without help from anyone else, whatever happened to suggest itself to me. (Keene, 421)
The title of the work is probably not the original one, and The Pillow Book was perhaps selected by a later scribe copying the manuscript inspired by the work's epilogue:
One day Lord Korechika, the Minister of the Centre, brought the Empress a bundle of notebooks. “What shall we do with them?” Her Majesty asked me. “The Emperor had already made arrangements for copying the Records of the Historian.”“Let them make them into a pillow,” I said.“Very well,” said Her Majesty. “You may have them.”(Keene, 415)
Here the meaning of 'pillow' may be as a bedside book or private journal kept in the drawer of the wooden pillows refined ladies used. Another interpretation of 'pillow' is a poet's handbook ( utamakura ), and the work does often read like a list of topics meant to inspire writers and poets, presenting catalogues of plants, places, natural features, amusing human relations and so on.
Opening
The opening section of the book describes what the author considers the best times to view the four seasons:
In spring it is the dawn that is most beautiful. As the light creeps over the hills, their outlines are dyed a faint red and wisps of purplish cloud trail over them.In summer the nights. Not only when the moon shines, but on dark nights too, as the fireflies flit to and fro, and even when it rains, how beautiful it is!In autumn the evenings, when the glimmering sun sinks close to the edge of the hills and crows fly back to their nests in threes and fours and twos; more charming still is a file of wild geese, like specks in the distant sky. When the sun has set, one's heart is moved by the sound of the wind and the hum of the insects.In winter the early mornings. It is beautiful indeed when snow has fallen during the night, but splendid too when the ground is white with frost; or even when there is no snow or frost, but it is simply very cold and the attendants hurry from room to room stirring up the fires and bringing charcoal, how well this fits the season's mood! But as noon approaches and the cold wears off, no one bothers to keep the braziers alight, and soon nothing remains but a pile of white ashes. (Keene, 416-417)
Example Observations
When I make myself imagine what it is like to be one of those women who live at home, faithfully serving their husbands - women who have not a single exciting prospect in life yet who believe they are perfectly happy - I am filled with scorn. (Keene, 426)
A preacher ought to be good-looking. For, if we are properly to understand his worthy sentiments, we must keep our eyes on him while he speaks. (Ebrey, 199)
In the winter, when it is very cold and one lies buried under bedclothes listening to one's lover's endearments, it is delightful to hear the booming of a temple gong, which seems to come from the bottom of a deep well. The first cry of the birds, whose beaks are still tucked under their wings, is also strange and muffled. Then one bird after another takes up the call. How pleasant it is to lie there listening as the sound becomes clearer and clearer!(Keene, 419)
A good lover will behave as elegantly at dawn as at any other time. (Ebrey, 199)
A lover who is leaving at dawn announces he has to find his fan and his paper. “I know I put them somewhere last night,” he says. Since it is pitch dark, he gropes about the room, bumping into the furniture and muttering, “Strange! Where on earth can they be?” finally he discovers the objects. He thrusts the paper into the breast of his robe with a great rustling sound; then he snaps open his fan and busily fans away with it. Only now is he ready to take his leave. What charmless behaviour! “Hateful” is an understatement. (Keene, 419)
An admirer has come on a clandestine visit, but a dog catches sight of him and starts barking. One feels like killing the beast. (Keene, 423)
One day, when the snow lay thick on the ground and it was so cold that the lattices had all been closed, I and the other ladies were sitting with Her Majesty, chatting and poking the embers in the brazier.“Tell me, Shonagon,” said the Empress, “how is the snow on Hsiang-lu Peak?”I told the maid to raise one of the lattices and then rolled up the blind all the way. Her Majesty smiled. (Keene, 422)
A lean, hirsute man taking a nap in the daytime. Does it occur to him what a spectacle he is making of himself?Ugly men should sleep only at night, for they cannot be seen in the dark and, besides, most people are in bed themselves. But they should get up at the crack of dawn, so that no one has to see them lying down. (Whitney Hall, 445)
I remember that once I was overcome by a great desire to go on a pilgrimage. Having made my way up the log steps, deafened by the fearful roar of the river, I hurried into my enclosure, longing to gaze upon the sacred countenance of Buddha. To my dismay I found a throng of commoners had settled themselves directly in front of me, where they were incessantly standing up, prostrating themselves, and squatting down again. They looked like so many basket-worms as they crowded together in their hideous clothes, leaving hardly an inch of space between themselves and me. I really felt like pushing them all over sideways. (Keene, 423)
RECEPTION
The Pillow Book was already in circulation at court before Sei Shonagon had even finished it, as revealed in this passage from the final part of the book:
When the middle general of the Left was still the governor of Ise [Minamoto no Tsunefusa], he came to visit me at my home. I put out for him the mat closest to hand, only to notice to my horror that this notebook was on top. In confusion, I pulled back the mat, but he kept his grip on the notebook and took it off with him. It did not come back until a considerable time later. That, I imagine, is when it first began to circulate. (Keene, 420)
The Pillow Book was popular during the Heian Period and was much imitated, referred to in later works and quoted directly, but it was eclipsed in popularity by Tale of Genji and the 905 CE poem anthology Kokinshu over the centuries. A revival has occurred in more recent times, and the work is now widely regarded as a masterpiece of Japanese literature, the first and still finest example of the zuihitsu genre, and one of the most humorous works produced in the Japanese language.
This article was made possible with generous support from the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation.
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