Galba › Gallienus › Cicero & the Catiline Conspiracy » Origins and History
Articles and Definitions › Contents
- Galba › Who Was
- Gallienus › Who Was
- Cicero & the Catiline Conspiracy › Antique Origins
Ancient civilizations › Historical places, and their characters
Galba › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Galba was Roman emperor from June 68 to January 69 CE. With the death of Emperor Nero on June 9, 68 CE, the Julio-Claudian dynasty officially ended, leaving the Roman Empire without a clear successor to the throne. With the assistance of the army, Galba, governor-general of Spain, quickly rose to fill the void.
EARLY LIFE
Servius Sulpicius Galba was born into an aristocratic family on December 24, 3 BCE to Gaius Sulpicius Galba and Mummia Achaica. An older brother, Gaius, (ten years his senior) would later commit suicide in 36 CE, due to “financial embarrassment,” after incurring the ire of Emperor Tiberius. While little in known of Galba's early years, historian Suetonius in his The Twelve Caesars wrote that Emperor Augustus singled Galba out of a group of young boys and said, “You too will taste a little of my glory, child,” suggesting that Galba would one day be emperor. The news did not seem to impact Tiberius, the eventual successor to Augustus, when he replied, “Very well, let him live in peace; the news does not concern me in the least.” Suetonius added that the future emperor was “a conscientious student of public affairs, and particularly skilled in law…”
As for his appearance, he was completely bald (although coins of the era picture him with hair) and suffered a severe case of arthritis, crippling both his hands and feet – he was even unable to wear shoes. Galba's only marriage (considered little more than a formality – since he was thought to be homosexual) was to Semilia Lepides. After her death and those of his children, he refused to remarry, despite pressure to do so.
'HIS POWER AND PRESTIGE WERE FAR GREATER WHILE HE WAS ASSUMING CONTROL OF THE EMPIRE THAN AFTERWARDS' SUETONIUS
With the exception of Nero, the other Julio-Claudians --Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula and Claudius -- seemed to respect Galba, enabling him to hold a series of public offices. He rose rapidly through the ranks, eventually becoming governor of Africa (44 – 45 CE). Earlier in 40 CE, Emperor Caligula had appointed him commander of a legion in Upper Germany, something that endeared him to the young emperor but not to his men. Suetonius wrote, “In grueling manueuvres (sic) he toughened old campaigners as well as raw recruits and sharply checked a barbarian raid into Gaul.” Early on, he had earned a reputation for both cruelty and ruthlessness. Galba believed any sign of disobedience or disrespect to be completely unacceptable and, therefore, a challenge to his authority. His reputation and ability to command grew. Upon the death of Caligula, many even suggested that he assume the throne; but he refused -- a gesture that earned the respect of Emperor Claudius. For this loyalty, Claudius appointed him pro- consul of Africa with orders to suppress a series of disturbances and native revolts.
Galba abruptly dropped out of public service in 49 AD; supposedly he had rejected the advances of Claudius's wife and Nero's mother, Agrippina the Younger. He eventually returned to service in 60 CE at Nero's request when the governorship of Spain became available. He held the position for eight years, but as the empire began to crumble under the poor leadership of Nero, many of the provincial governors began to call for his ousting. Marcus Salvius Otho, governor of Lusitania, and Gaius Julius Vindex, one of the governors of Gaul, appealed to Galba to overthrow Nero. Suetonius wrote, “…messengers arrived from Rome with the news that Nero, too, was dead, and that the citizens had all sworn obedience to himself (Galba), so he dropped the title of governor-general and assumed that of Caesar.” Galba was also motivated by rumors that Nero had wanted him assassinated.
Map: Year of the Four Emperors
GALBA AS EMPEROR
With the assistance of Otho (who had been exiled to Lusitania by Nero), Galba raised additional legions and marched into Rome, and with the news of Nero's death verified, assumed the throne. According to Cassius Dio in his Roman History, Nero was at a loss when he heard of Galba being declared emperor by his soldiers. He created a plan to kill all the senators, burn Rome, and flee to Alexandria : “He was on the point of putting these measures into effect when the senate withdrew the guard that surrounded him and then, entering the camp, declared him an enemy and chose Galba in his place.”
Suetonius wrote that his assumption of the throne was not entirely popular: “His power and prestige were far greater while he was assuming control of the Empire than afterwards; though affording ample proof of his capacity to rule, he won less praise for his good acts than blame for his mistakes.” Mistakes? Suetonius added, “He sentenced men of all ranks to death without a trial or the scantiest of evidence… but the most virulent hatred of him smouldered in the army.” He demanded tribute from many of the towns he had conquered, keeping the money for himself. He also seized money from many of the people Nero had lavished; however, the recovered money was not spent on his troops -- an act that alienated his own men. He no longer felt his hold on the throne was dependent upon them, so why should he bribe them. To the citizens of Rome, who had welcomed the death of Nero, he no longer spent money on lavish shows (ie gladiatorial games), considering them a waste of money. Rumors of unrest in many of the provinces, Germany for one, began to emerge.
DEATH & SUCCESSOR
Because he was in his early seventies and with his hold on the throne tenuous, Galba adopted Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus as his son and heir, an act that angered his long-time supporter Otho, who had considered himself the rightful successor. With no alternative and the support of the military, Otho bribed the Praetorian Guards (they felt little loyalty of Galba) who murdered both Galba and Piso in the Roman Forum, bringing their severed heads to him. Otho was hailed as the new emperor in January 69 D. Galba had served less than seven months, becoming the first in a line of what would later become known as “the year of the four emperors.”
Gallienus › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Gallienus was Roman emperor from 253 to 268 CE. Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus, the eldest son of Emperor Valerian, was named co-emperor by his father in 253 CE. He was one of many who would claim the throne over the next two decades.For the 50 years from 235 to 285 CE, there were over 50 claimants to the imperial purple of Rome. Being the emperor of the Roman Empire did not always bring job security. In 253 CE, after only three months on the throne, Emperor Aemilian was preparing to meet in battle with his challenger, Publius Licinius Valerianus (Valerian). Unfortunately, before he would even step foot on the battlefield, his own army rebelled and murdered him; it was the same army that had just recently declared him emperor. With the support of both armies and the Roman Senate, Valerian was declared the new emperor.
Initially, since Gallienus was already in Rome and his father was not, the Senate awarded him the title of Caesar ; however, when Valerian arrived in the city, he wanted his son to be his equal and raised him to the rank of Augustus. By this time, the title of Caesar had been commonly assigned to the emperor-designate or successor while the title Augustus was employed to define the emperor. In 256 CE, in order to safeguard a dynasty, Valerian conferred upon Gallienus' son Valerian the Younger the designation of Caesar. Unfortunately, the young heir to the throne died two years later, leaving the title vacant. Not wanting to be without an assigned successor, Gallienus' next son, Saloninus, was soon given the position. In a unique decision, foreshadowing Emperor Diocletian ’s tetrarchy a century later, Valerian divided the kingdom into two, taking the eastern half himself and giving Gallienus the west. Shortly afterwards, Valerian headed east to do battle against the Persians and King Shapur. The two men would never see each other again.
EXTERNAL THREATS
Like his father's, Gallenius' primary aim was to return order to the empire. Unfortunately, this proved difficult, for the emperor of the west's reign was continually plagued by both rebellion and opposition, especially after Valerian's death in 260 CE at the hands of King Shapur. Claimants to the throne arose across the empire; to the north, east, and west. Gallienus was seen by many as being weak, and from 260 to 262 CE, seven people would declare themselves to be emperor. However, possible rivals were not the emperor's only concern. To the west, the Franks pushed into Gaul and Hispania, destroying the capital of Tarraco (Tarragona).
Defeat of Valerian by Shapur
In 258 CE a Germanic tribe, the Alemanni, gathered and threatened to invade Italy only to fall to Gallienus at Mediolanum (Milan). Four years earlier, after his father had left for the east, Gallienus traveled northward concentrating his efforts on the frontiers of both the Danube and the Rhine, successfully blocking the Germanic invaders from crossing further into Romanterritory. To ensure the area, he strengthened the garrisons along the left bank of the Rhine. In 257 CE his victories to the north brought him the titles of Germanicus Maximus and Dacicus Maximus; the latter for his success against the Carpi who had invaded Dacia.
UNREST IN THE EMPIRE
One of the first noteworthy threats to Gallienus's throne was by the governor of Pannonia and Moesia, Ingenuus, who, like many before and after him, was declared emperor by his troops. Regrettably, his 'reign' would be very short lived, for he suffered defeat at the hands of Gallienus' commander Manius Acilius Aureolus at Mursa. Although sources differ, Ingenuus was supposedly either killed by his own men or committed suicide after fleeing the battlefield. His once devoted troops turned their loyalty to Regalianus, the governor of Upper Pannonia, who, in turn, would be defeated by Gallienus.
However, the next challenge to the emperor's authority was far more serious and actually quite successful. Marcus Cassianius Latinius, more commonly known as Postumus, was the governor of Germania Superior and Inferior (Upper and Lower Germany); his family was of Gallic origin. His threat to the empire would ultimately cost Gallienus a son. The emperor's second son and successor to the throne, the young Saloninus, had been left under the care of Praetorian Prefect Silvanus in a garrison located at Colonia Agrippina (modern-day Cologne). Postumus and Silvanus had argued (history does not say why), so the usurper and his army approached the fort, demanding its surrender as well as the young heir and the prefect. The surrender came quickly and both Saloninus, who by this time had been raised to the position of Augustus, and Silvanus were relinquished and summarily executed.
Coin Depicting Roman Emperor Postumus
Although Gallienus eventually marched against Postumus, it would prove to be unsuccessful. While the claimant would be opposed by imperial forces and suffer initial defeat, he and Gallienus would never meet in serious battle. The emperor was forced to withdraw, having received a serious wound from an arrow during one of the early sieges. Postumus (260 to 268 CE) would gather his forces and declare himself emperor, claiming the western provinces for himself, being recognized as emperor by Germania, Gaul, Hispania, and eventually Britain. Afterwards, the usurper would establish his capital and residence at Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), complete with a senate and Praetorian Guard. Surprisingly, he made no attempt to march on Rome. Like so many others, in 268 CE he would be murdered by his own men.
MACRIANUS' REVOLT
Meanwhile, the Persians, under Shapur, were causing havoc across the Middle East, retaking Antioch as well as capturing cities throughout Mesopotamia and Cappadocia. Roman commander Fulvius Iunius Macrianus aided by another commander named Ballista defeated Shapur at Corycus on the Cilician coast, forcing him to withdraw his army to the Euphrates. With this success, Macrianus (he believed himself to be too old) declared his sons Macrianus the Younger and Quietus as co-emperors;the pair was recognized in Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Macrianus the Younger and his father advanced northward into the Balkans only to suffer defeat at the hands of the Roman commander Domitianus.
LIKE HIS FATHER, GALLIENUS WANTED TO BRING STRENGTH TO A SUFFERING EMPIRE. HIS ATTEMPT AT REFORM, HOWEVER, FAILED TO QUELL THE GROWING UNEASINESS.
Quietus, who had been left in Syria, would soon suffer the same fate as his father and brother. Septimius Odenathus, the prince of Palmyra and an ally of Gallienus, routed him at Emesa where the townspeople quickly turned on Quietus and put the young would-be emperor to death. Now bearing the titles of Ruler of the Romans and Governor of the East ( Dux Orientis ), the prince moved against the Persians, and when diplomacy failed, recaptured much of Mesopotamia and Armenia, although he failed to capture the capital Ctesiphon. Unfortunately, in 267 CE Odenathus and his son were murdered in a domestic quarrel. He was succeeded by his wife Zenobia whose forces were defeated by Emperor Aurelian ; she was taken to Rome in chains.
MILITARY REFORM
For a time, things seemed to be going well for Gallienus. In 268 CE, he named his son Marinianus as his successor, and a decisive victory at Naissus over the Goths and Heruli pushed the Germanic tribes out of the Balkans. Having seen the Persians in battle, Gallienus next believed it was necessary to reorganize the military by not only creating a cavalry corps of armored horsemen but also making the army more mobile and effective. He even banned senators from army commands.
Unfortunately for the emperor, an old ally turned enemy. Aureolus, who had been left in charge of the Roman forces in northern Italy, had turned against Gallienus and joined with Postumus. His men declared him emperor. Instead of moving northward, Gallienus turned towards Italy meeting Aureolus at Mediolanum (Milan). The battle would be short. Gallienus fell victim to conspiracy and assassination; a praetorian prefect, Heraclianus, and the commanders Marcianus and Cecropius. It is also believed that two future emperors were involved, Claudius Gothicus (268 to 270 CE) and Aurelian (270 to 275 CE). While the assassination of Gallienus in 268 CE brought Claudius II to the throne, instability throughout the empire remained.
LEGACY
For reasons that remain unclear, history has not been kind to the memory of Gallienus. He was a student of the arts with a love for all things Greek - art, literature, and philosophy, even studying under the Platonic philosopher Plotinus. Like his father, he wanted to bring strength to a suffering empire. His attempt at reform - he repealed many of the anti-Christian edicts enacted by his father - failed to quell the growing uneasiness. Repeated incursions and rebellion from both enemy invaders as well as those who were supposed to be loyal left a shattered empire.
Cicero & the Catiline Conspiracy › Antique Origins
Ancient Civilizations
The Roman Republic was in death's throes. Within a few short years, the “dictator for life” Julius Caesar would be assassinated, and, as a result, the government would descend into chaos. The consequence of a long civil war would bring the birth of an empire under the watchful eye of an emperor; however, it would also witness the loss of many personal liberties - liberties that were the pride of the people and the result of a long history of struggle and strife. Nevertheless, that was in the future - the year is 63 BCE and the city of Rome and the foundation of the Republic is being threatened. Luckily, one man would rise amidst the disorder, at least in his mind, to save it.
ROME'S ECONOMIC CRISIS
The year 63 BCE saw Rome as a city of almost one million residents, governing an empire that ranged from Hispania in the west to Syria in Middle East and from Gaul in the north to the deserts of Africa. Outside the eternal city, in the provinces, the next few decades would bring a strengthening of the borders - Pompey battling King Mithridates of Pontus in the East while Julius Caesar fought the assorted tribes of Gaul and Germany to the north, but at home Rome was facing an internal threat.The difficulties on the home front stemmed from troubles developing in the eastern provinces.
Cicero Denounces Catiline
A significant decrease in trade and the resulting loss of tax revenue resulted in an increase in debt among many of the more affluent Romans. Unemployment in the city was high. The Roman Senate stood silent, unable or unwilling to come to a solution. The people longed for a hero, namely the ever-popular Pompey, to return and bring a remedy. In the meantime, however, there was serious - or so it appeared - unrest, an unrest that led to a conspiracy, a supposed conspiracy that threatened not only the lives of the people who lived within the walls of Rome but also the city itself.
CATILINE VERSUS CICERO
At the center of this turmoil were two men - Lucius Sirgius Catiline and Marcus Tullius Cicero. Catiline was a near bankrupt aristocrat, while Cicero, his most outspoken adversary, was a renowned orator and statesman as well as a philosopher and poet. Catiline was from a distinguished patrician family - his great-grandfather had fought against Hannibal in the Second Punic War - whereas Cicero came from a wealthy landed family outside Rome, Arpinum, a small city southeast of the capital.He had had a brilliant career in law where he was able to use his famed skills as an orator. It was said that people would stop what they were doing to hear Cicero speak.
IT WAS SAID THAT PEOPLE WOULD STOP WHAT THEY WERE DOING TO HEAR CICERO'S FAMED SKILLS AS AN ORATOR.
The two men clashed after Cicero uncovered a plot, a plot conceived by Catiline, that called for the assassination of several elected officials and the burning of the city itself. The purpose of this supposed assault on the city, or so it was later revealed, would be the elimination of debt for all --- the poor as well as the wealthy (Catiline included). Some believe that the resulting chaos would also allow Catiline to assume the leadership role he so passionately desired. The uncovering of the conspiracy would bring what historian Mary Beard in her book SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome called a clash between “ideology and ambition.” The discovery of the alleged conspiracy would be the pinnacle of Cicero's long distinguished career in politics. It would bring him praise from some but condemnation from others.
CATILINE'S DARK PAST
The two men initially came to blows during the election for the consulship in 64 BCE. Catiline used his own money as well as the money of others - he actually went further into debt - to win the election, only to finish third. Unfortunately, he lost to an “outsider” Cicero and Gaius Antonius Hybrida. In actuality Hybrida's reputation was little better than of Catiline. Considered by many to be corrupt, he once had been expelled by the Senate and stripped of his rank. Cicero had used his superior oratory skills to put Catiline's sullied character into question, costing Catiline the election. Even before the exposure of the conspiracy, Cicero had seen Catiline as a serious threat to the troubled city. While Cicero believed both in the “rule of law and the maintenance of the constitution,” Catiline saw himself as the champion of the poor, the bankrupt veterans and dispossessed.
To the casual observer Catiline appeared to be well-suited for the consulship: he had served in the army during the Social Wars (89-91 BCE) with Pompey's father and had been both a praetor and governor. He even had the support of Julius Caesar (although Caesar would later rescind it). However, Catiline had a darker side. Although he had been inexplicably acquitted of extortion charges while governor in Africa, he suffered from serious rumors concerning the mysterious death of both his wife and son. Despite gossip and innuendo, he won the support and money from Marcus Licinus Crassus to run for consulship in 64 BCE only to lose to Cicero and Antonius Hybrida. After winning the election, Cicero made sure there would be little interference from his co- consul Antonius, a close friend of Catiline. Since running for any elected office was costly, Cicero promised Antonius that after his term of consul ended he could have the lucrative position of Governor of Macedonia where he could recoup his finances; his time in Macedonia was short for he would be forced out and eventually sent into exile. Cicero took office as consul on January 1, 63 BCE.
THE CONSPIRACY
Shortly after the election and Catiline's defeat, Cicero began to hear rumblings of a conspiracy - the plan to assassinate several of the government's prominent officials (Cicero included) and burn the city. The information, which many would at first question its authenticity, came from a woman named Fulvia, the mistress of the Quintus Curius, a friend of Catiline.Supposedly, Curius was deeply in debt, causing Fulvia to seek greener pastures. In order to prevent her from leaving, he claimed his money problems would soon be over and leaked information of the plot. Curius would later be persuaded to tell all.Fulvia immediately went to Cicero's wife, Terentia, with the information who, in turn, told Cicero. Few people, however, believed him. The Senate would say he had little proof except for rumor and was exaggerating everything. To them he “was creating an atmosphere of fear.” Cicero, however, believed it and even hired a bodyguard which would prove to be a wise decision for, on November 7, 63 BCE, there was indeed an attempt on his life. Luckily for him, Fulvia had warned him of the possibility of an attack.
Cicero
LETTERS OF PROOF
About this time a number of unsigned letters addressed to various Roman senators were delivered to Crassus; his letter warned him to leave Rome. Crassus accompanied by two senators went directly to Cicero. Crassus said the letters were from an unnamed source but many believed this person to be a friend of Cicero and Catiline, Caelius.
Cicero convened the Senate on October 20 and delivered the letters to the several senators to whom they were addressed.Each letter contained the same thing: information concerning the plot and instructions to leave the city. Meanwhile, armed forces of veterans and the poor were gathering to the north. In his defense, Catiline appeared before the Senate on November 8 denying, of course, everything and verbally attacking Cicero. To appease his accusers, however, he offered to go under house arrest (even at Cicero's home), claiming he was being forced into exile without a trial. Later, after calling for uprisings throughout the city, he escaped in the night with 300 men, travelling to Faesulae in Etruria and joining a fellow conspirator, Caius Manlius. Upon learning this, the Senate declared both men public enemies.
THE CONSPIRATORS ARRESTED
Further information on the status of the plot forming outside the city came from an unlikely source. The Allobroges from Gaul were in the city appealing to the Senate for relief from the burdensome taxes they were being forced to pay. Several conspirators confronted them, urging them to join in their plans by instigating a revolt in Gaul. After the Gauls left the city, they were intercepted by Caius Pomptinus and forced to return, eventually telling all they had learned to Cicero - names, places, and plans. At last the Senate was convinced of the seriousness of the plot; arrests of those conspirators remaining in Rome soon followed. At the home of one of the conspirators, Gaius Cornelius Cethegus, a number of weapons including spears, knives and swords were found. On December 5 the Senate was convened at the Temple of the goddess of Harmony and Concord to discuss the punishment of the five conspirators in custody.
Julius Caesar, a friend of Catiline and someone who had at one point been accused of being a conspirator, opposed Cicero's suggestion for immediate execution, that is, execution without a trial. Even the consul-elect Junius Silanus supported execution. Cicero had the proceedings recorded in shorthand, so he could defend his position to the public gathering outside in the Forum. Caesar suggested the conspirators should be imprisoned until a trial could be held. Since there were no Roman prisons, fines, exile, or death were the usual punishments. He declared that while he was not sympathetic to the conspirators they, the Senate, must not act in haste. The historian Suetonius wrote in his The Twelve Caesars,
When the Catilinian Conspiracy came to light, the whole House, with the sole exception of Caesar, the Praetor-elect, demanded the death penalty for Catiline and his associates. Caesar proposed merely that they should be imprisoned, each in a different town, and their estates confiscated.
The Senate listened and were about to agree with Caesar when Marcus Porcius Cato, known as Cato the Younger, rose to speak. He was no friend of Caesar and a member of the optimates, a strong, conservative contingency within the Senate. In a rousing and impatient speech, he agreed with Cicero - execution was the only choice. The Senate concurred and the men were to be executed without a trial. Although a trial was customary and dictated by law, Cicero used his emergency powers to support the decision and forgo a trial. Each of the five men was taken to the Tullianum, an ancient building in the Forum that had once served as a well-house. They were forced into a small, dingy and smelly room where they were strangled with a noose by an executioner. Speaking to the crowd outside, Cicero, now being hailed as pater patriae meaning “father of the fatherland,” exclaimed Vixere! or “They have lived!” The praise was, however, short-lived. Many people began to question his blatant use of executive powers, a decision that clearly violated a person's right to a fair trial.
AFTERMATH
All of Catiline's plans had failed. He and his army tried to escape across the Apennine Mountains but were intercepted. Of his supposed 20,000 troops, three-fourths had deserted him. He was defeated and killed. The plot came to an end. Although he had success as a consul, a writer and poet, Cicero always believed his fight against Catiline was his greatest achievement. In a much-quoted speech made several weeks earlier on November 8, 63 BCE (the day after his assassination attempt) Cicero expressed his disdain for Catiline, Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? which translated means “How long, Catiline, will you go on abusing our patience?”
Almost two decades later as the city and Republic were in the midst of another civil war, Cicero's life was in danger once again, and this time it would ultimately bring his death. Unfortunately, he had made himself an enemy of Mark Antony, the Roman commander and close friend of Caesar. In an essay entitled “Attack on an Enemy of Freedom,” he wrote, making reference to his exposure of Catiline's conspiracy,
When I was a young man I defended our state: in my old age I will not abandon it. Having scorned the swords of Catiline, I shall not be intimidated by yours [speaking to Mark Antony ]. On the contrary, I would gladly offer my own body, if my death could redeem the freedom of our nation - if it could cause the long-suffering people of Rome to find final relief from its labours.
Even in his old age Cicero continued to be an outspoken advocate of the Republic and its ideals. Unfortunately, in making an enemy of Antony, he had sealed his own fate. On December 7, 43 BCE he was captured, killed, and beheaded.
LICENSE:
Article based on information obtained from these sources:with permission from the Website Ancient History Encyclopedia
Content is available under License Creative Commons: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported. CC-BY-NC-SA License