Deianira › Deir el-Medina › Alexander the Great as a God » Origins and History
Articles and Definitions › Contents
- Deianira › Who Was
- Deir el-Medina › Origins
- Alexander the Great as a God › Origins
Ancient civilizations › Historical places, and their characters
Deianira › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Deianira was the second wife of the Greek hero and demi-god Herakles (better known as Hercules, son of the god Zeusand the mortal woman Alcmene). She was the daughter of King Oeneus and Queen Althaea of Calydon. During the time of Hercules' famous Twelve Labors, he had taken a kind of side-adventure to sail with Jason and the Argonauts and, on this trip, met the hero Meleager, Oeneus' son. When Meleager was born, the Fates predicted that he would live until a log, presently burning in the family's hearth, was consumed. His mother instantly snatched the log from the fire, doused it with water, and hid it in a closet. Many years later, after Meleager intentionally killed his brothers following the Calydonian Boar Hunt, Althaea, in her grief, retrieved the log, threw it into the fire, and Meleager died. Hercules later met the spirit of Meleager during his twelfth labor, when he went into the underworld to bring back the three-headed dog Cerberus who guarded the gates of Hades.Meleager told him he was troubled because his sister Deianira remained unwed on earth. He asked Hercules to return to the mortal plane and marry her so that she would not grow old and unloved in their father's house. Hercules promised the ghostthat he would marry the woman if he were able to.
THE MEETING OF DEIANIRA & HERCULES
Once Hercules had completed his labors he then had further adventures, and whether he thought of Meleager and his request is never mentioned. There were certainly many other pressing events to occupy his mind. He killed Prince Iphitus of Oechalia and, to expiate this sin, sold himself as a slave to Queen Omphale who made him dress in women's clothes and do needlework with the ladies of the court. Once Omphale set him free, he then embarked on further adventures such as the conquest of Troy, the war with the Titans, and a mission of revenge against King Augeias whom he felt had cheated him earlier by backing out of an agreement they had made. A number of years passed before Hercules came to Calydon and met Deianira.
DEIANIRA WAS NOT INTERESTED IN MARRYING ANY OF HER SUITORS, AND PERHAPS WAS NOT EVEN THINKING OF MARRIAGE, UNTIL SHE FELL IN LOVE WITH HERCULES.
Whether he remembered his promise to Meleager seems irrelevant, since he quickly fell in love with the beautiful princess who was so independent that she drove her own chariot and was adept in the arts of war. It also seems that Meleager did not have to worry about his sister's marital status, as she was of such beauty and charm that she had many suitors who wished to marry her. She was not interested in marrying any of them and, perhaps, was not even thinking of marriage until she fell in love with Hercules. When Hercules declared his intentions, most of these suitors withdrew, but one of them, the river god Achelous, would not back down from the challenge of a mortal. He wrestled Hercules for Deianira's hand and would continually change shape just when Hercules' was on the point of winning. He finally changed himself into a bull and charged at Hercules who broke off one of his horns and would not return it until the god had capitulated, which he quickly did; Hercules and Deianira were then married.
THE MARRIAGE OF DEIANIRA & HERCULES
The new couple lived happily for a time in Calydon until he accidentally killed his father-in-law's cupbearer. Although it was an accident, and he was forgiven by the king, Hercules could not forgive himself and so decided to leave the kingdom with Deianira. On their travels, they reached the river Evenus and there met the centaur Nessus who offered to carry Deianira across on his back. Upon reaching the other side, however, he tried to rape her and Hercules shot him with one of his arrows.These were the same arrows Hercules had dipped in the blood of the nine-headed monster known as the Hydra during the second of his Twelve Labors in order to tip them with poison, as the Hydra's blood was extremely venomous. Nessus, therefore, was dying quickly as the poison pulsed through him, when he told Deianira that his blood possessed a special quality as a love potion, and that she should take some of it in a vial. If ever she felt that Hercules might love another woman, he said, she should sprinkle the blood on his shirt and he would remain in love with Deianira forever, never even noticing other women. Nessus understood, of course, that his now-poisoned blood would be deadly to any mortal, and this was his revenge for Hercules' arrow.
Gilded Bronze Hercules
Hercules and Deianira left Nessus' corpse by the river and traveled on. They settled in the city of Trachis, started a family, and, again, were happy for a time until Hercules went to war against Eurytus who, like Augeius, had insulted him earlier in life.He killed Eurytus and took his daughter Iole (whom he had won before in an archery contest but been refused his prize by Eurytus) as his concubine. Another version of the myth relates how he helped Artemis kill a boar which was ravaging the kingdom and was given Iole as a gift. Hercules then prepared a victory feast and sent word to Deianira to send him his best shirt to wear at the festival. Deianira, fearing that Hercules was more fond of Iole now than of her, soaked the shirt in the blood of Nessus and then washed away the stains, leaving only the poison. As soon as Hercules put the shirt on, he was seized with agony and began to burn. He tore the shirt from his body, but the poison was already grafted to his skin. Since he was a demi-god, he could not die quickly and so suffered as the poison penetrated his body, and he became weaker and weaker until, laying himself down on a funeral pyre he constructed, he died. His immortal part was taken by his father Zeus to dwell among the gods. Deianira, realizing she had been tricked by Nessus and had killed her husband, hanged herself.
DEIANIRA IN LITERATURE
Her story is sympathetically told in the Greek playwright Sophocles ' tragedy The Women of Trachis (written c. 450 BCE) and also by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BCE - c.14 CE) in his Heroides where one of the chapters is presented as a letter from Deianira to Hercules when he was away, expressing her love for him and asking when he might return to her. She is also featured in the play Hercules Oetae'us (Hercules on Oeta) by the Roman playwright Seneca (also known as Seneca the Younger, 4 BCE-65 CE) where she is depicted as a vindictive and jealous woman who kills Hercules out of spite. Historians have questioned whether the play was actually written by Seneca but, whoever wrote it, they drew heavily on Sophocles' earlier work, keeping many of the same scenes and the same progression and only seriously departing from it in the character of Deianira. This version of Deianira, though a much less sympathetic rendering of the story, is in keeping with the meaning of her name: "man-destroyer". Earlier versions of her story generally present her as unwittingly causing Hercules' death out of her love for him and as a sympathetic character who dies tragically.
Deir el-Medina › Origins
Definition and Origins
Deir el-Medina is the modern Arabic name for the worker's village (now an archaeological site) which was home to the artisans and craftsmen of Thebes who built and decorated the royal tombs in the nearby Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens. The ancient inhabitants called the village Pa Demi (“the village”) but it was referred to in official correspondence as Set-Ma'at (“The Place of Truth”) because the workers there were thought to be inspired by the gods in creating the eternal homes of the deceased kings and their families. Early in the Christian era the village, then deserted, was occupied by monks who took over the Temple of Hathor for use as a cloister. The temple was referred to as Deir el-Medina (“Monastery of the Town”) and this name finally came to be applied to the entire site.
Unlike most villages in ancient Egypt, which grew up organically from small settlements, Deir el-Medina was a planned community. It was founded by Amenhotep I (c.1541-1520 BCE) specifically to house workers on royal tombs because tombdesecration and robbery had become a serious concern by his time. It was decided that the royalty of Egypt would no longer advertise their final resting places with large monuments but, instead, would be buried in a less accessible area in tombs cut into the cliff walls. These areas would become the necropolises now known as the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens and those who lived in the village were known as “Servants in the Place of Truth” for their important role in creating eternal homes and also remaining discreet regarding tomb contents and location.
DEIR EL-MEDINA IS AMONG THE MOST IMPORTANT ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN EGYPT BECAUSE OF THE WEALTH OF INFORMATION IT PROVIDES ON THE DAILY LIFE OF THE PEOPLE WHO LIVED THERE.
Deir el-Medina is among the most important archaeological sites in Egypt because of the wealth of information it provides on the daily life of the people who lived there. Serious excavation at the site was begun in 1905 CE by the Italian archaeologist Ernesto Schiaparelli and furthered by a number of others throughout the 20th century CE with some of the most extensive work done by French archaeologist Bernard Bruyere between 1922-1940 CE. At the same time Howard Carter was bringing the treasures of the royalty to light from Tutankhamun ’s tomb, Bruyere was uncovering the lives of the working people who would have created that final resting place.
HISTORY OF THE VILLAGE
The earliest extant ruins at the site are from the reign of Thutmose I (1520-1492 BCE), son and successor of Amenhotep I, but there is no doubt that it was Amenhotep I who first planned the site. He and his mother, Ahmose-Nefertari, were worshipped as protective gods at the site throughout its history. The workers also venerated the cobra goddess Meretseger (whose name means “She Who Loves Silence”), the personification of the Theban necropolis and protector of the dead and, especially, of their tombs.
Osiride Statue of Amenhotep I
By the time of the New Kingdom (c.1570-c.1069 BCE) tomb robbing had become almost epidemic in scope. Although measures such as false doors and labyrinths had been a part of tomb building since the Old Kingdom (c.2613-2181 BCE) they were not effective in keeping robbers from reaching the burial chamber and the vast treasures left there with the deceased. One gains an understanding of exactly how great the wealth in these tombs was when one considers the treasures of Tutankhamun's tomb discovered by Howard Carter in 1922 CE. Tutankhamun died before he was 20 years old and had not yet amassed the kind of wealth a king like Djoser (c.2670 BCE) or Khufu (2589-2566 BCE) would have had entombed for the afterlife.
The Valley of the Kings was selected as the new necropolis for royalty and the village was planned for easy access (a half hour's walk) from a worker's home to the tombs. The village was in continuous use from the time of Thutmose I until the collapse of the New Kingdom in c. 1069 BCE. Although the community and nearby necropolises were planned to safeguard the tombs of the kings, human greed and opportunity would eventually work to undermine the plan and some of the workers themselves would turn to robbing the tombs they had helped build and protect for an easy and quite substantial payoff. For most of its history, however, the village seems to have functioned as it was intended.
HOMES & LAYOUT
The community was laid out in a rectangular grid pattern surrounded by a protective wall and occupied an area of 1.4 acres (5,600 meters) with 68 houses inside the wall and others, belonging to less-skilled workers, located on the slopes of the mountains outside the wall. There was a main entrance in the north wall with a “guard house” next to it and another in the south. The actual purpose of the “guard house” structure is debated by scholars. Although it would appear to be an actual guard house, it may have served another purpose. To the east and west were the worker's cemeteries and, not surprisingly, these featured many elaborate and beautiful tombs.
THE VILLAGE WAS SITUATED, QUITE LITERALLY, IN THE MIDDLE OF THE DESERT IN ORDER TO SEPARATE ITS OCCUPANTS FROM THE REST OF THE POPULATION.
The homes were tightly packed together to make the most of the available space. The village was situated, quite literally, in the middle of the desert in order to separate its occupants from the rest of the population. The site was the flat land at the bottom of the valley which was fairly limited as far as building was concerned.
Entering from the north main gate, one would be standing on the main street through town with a long row of houses rising up on either side. One entered a house through a front door into a parlor with an enclosed space built out from one wall which had something to do with fertility or childbirth. This room would also have been where guests were received. The houses were designed as long rectangles running from the street to the surrounding wall. To go further into the house, one would step up into a living room, then enter two rooms which were used for various purposes, and finally end up in the kitchen at the back of the house which was open to the air with a thatched roof to protect one from the sun. There were also steps leading up to the roof where workers would sleep at night or keep their animals or a small garden. Unlike the homes of the wealthy or nobility, there were no rooms designated specifically as bedrooms. People seem to have slept in the living room, the two middle rooms (which were also used for storage) or on the roof.
Deir el-Medina
One of the most significant differences between Deir el-Medina and other villages was that it was not self-sufficient. The people who lived there were artists, not farmers, and could not produce their own food. The village, as noted, was situated in the desert and so even if the people had some skill in agriculture the land would not have cooperated. Deir el-Medina also lacked an immediate water supply, it had no central well, and water had to be imported daily from the Nile. The same, of course, was true of food and necessary tools or household items. All such necessities had to be delivered to the village from Thebes every month as payment for the worker's labor.
THE FIRST LABOR STRIKE IN HISTORY
In c. 1156 BCE, under the reign of Ramesses III, this situation led to the first recorded labor strike in history. Egypt was struggling with limited resources after Ramesses III defeated the Sea Peoples and halted their invasion in 1178 BCE and that event, coupled with poor harvests, corrupt officials, and preparation for Ramesses III's Heb-Sed Festival, caused a late monthly payment. The workers lay down their tools and marched on Thebes demanding their pay.
This strike is quite significant in that it was completely unprecedented in Egypt's history. The king, as mediator between the people and the gods, kept a balance which allowed everyone below him to function accordingly. When the system for payment to the workers of Deir el-Medina broke down it was, therefore, not just a matter of late pay but a betrayal of ma'at (harmony), the core cultural value of the society. The workers recognized this and continued their protests, no longer in the interests of their pay, but attempting to right what they recognized as a serious wrong. Although the workers did eventually receive their pay, the strike signaled the beginning of a breakdown in supplies which would eventually lead to the end of the community.
LIFE IN THE VILLAGE
The people who actually worked on the tombs were all men; there is no evidence of female artists or masons at the site. The men would leave the village and work for ten days at the tombs, sleeping in mud-brick huts with thatched roofs, and then return for two days off. This schedule meant that, for most of the time, the village was occupied primarily by women and children. An interesting aspect of the houses is the enclosed space in the first room one would enter. In a typical Egyptian home, the rear of the house was the domain of the women but, at Deir el-Medina, it seems the front room served this purpose.The enclosures found in the parlors seem to have been birthing rooms or, at least, associated with childbirth. These small rooms are part of the evidence some scholars cite when discussing the Cult of Domesticity believed to have been part of everyday life in ancient Egypt and, especially, at Deir el-Medina.
Egyptian Dancer
Although the village could not sustain itself, the people who lived there often made items for barter with each other. Ostraca(shards of ceramics which are written on) give evidence of continuous trade between houses of sandals, beds, baskets, paintings, amulets, loincloths, and toys for the children. A worker might build an addition to the roof of a house in exchange for a sack of grain or jug of beer or paint a picture of a god or goddess to adorn a personal shrine for some object of equal value.In general, the people seem to have gotten along well together and helped each other as often as they could.
As in any community of human beings, however, there was also theft, dishonesty, and infidelity. One ostraca inscription tells the story of a worker named Paneb who involved himself with a number of other men's wives. The complaint reads:
Paneb slept with the lady Tuy when she was the wife of the workman Kenna. He slept with the lady Hel when she was with Pendua. He slept with the lady Hel when she was with Hesysunebef – and when he had slept with Hel he slept with Webkhet, her daughter. Moreover, Aapekhty, his son, also slept with Webkhet! (Snape, 85)
These problems were dealt with by the villagers themselves – as was often the case with rural villages in Egypt – without an appeal to the authorities at Thebes. Since the community was so tightly enclosed and removed from society at large, it was in one's best interest to maintain ma'at and behave accordingly with a consideration for others' property, privacy, and well-being.When one did not behave this way they were presumably punished by the community but it is unclear what form this punishment took. There is ample evidence of theft in which people demanded the return of their stolen goods but nothing to indicate whether those goods were returned or what happened to the thief.
DECLINE & ABANDONMENT
Toward the end of the New Kingdom, the late payments and the temptation of the wealth of the tombs combined to encourage some workers to turn to tomb robbing. There are many court documents dealing with cases from Thebes since tomb robbing was taken very seriously and handled by the state, not by rural village courts.
One well-documented case concerns a worker named Amenpanufer who was a mason at Deir el-Medina. In his confession, he relates how he went with some others and used his tools to break into the tomb of the pharaoh Sobekemsaf II. They opened the sarcophagi, stole the amulets, jewelry, and gold, and fled. They then divided up the heist evenly. Amenpanufer was arrested but simply took his share of the gold, paid it to an official, and returned to his comrades who then reimbursed him for his loss; and so, he says, he got into the habit of tomb robbing because there was so little risk of loss and so much wealth to be gained.
The strikes of c. 1156 BCE were only the beginning of the troubles with supplies to Deir el-Medina and, as the New Kingdom slowly collapsed, the villagers began to leave. It was clear, by c. 1100 BCE, that the plan of locating the tombs in a remote desert valley and employing a special community of artists to build and protect them had not worked as planned; the guardians themselves had turned thieves. More importantly, though, as the central government weakened, the bureaucracy necessary for the supply line to the village evaporated. The Valley of the Kings was abandoned as a royal necropolis and the villagers of Deir el-Medina left for Thebes and sought sanctuary at the temple of Medinet Habu in c. 1069 BCE. The village then remained deserted until it was occupied by Coptic monks at some point in the 4th century CE.
In the present day, the site is a popular tourist attraction for those visiting Luxor and the Temple of Karnak. The stone foundations of the houses and the outer wall remain intact and one may walk into and through the ancient homes. Although not as well preserved as Pompeii, Deir el-Medina gives a visitor the same impression of vanishing into the ancient past as one walks down the main street between the foundation of houses or into the front room parlors. A visit to the site makes clear, in a way no photograph really can, exactly how closely the villagers lived together in the long-ago time when it was known as the Place of Truth where the people built and protected the eternal homes of their kings.
Alexander the Great as a God › Origins
Ancient Civilizations
The age-old concept of the “divine right of kings” allowed that a country's ruler received his or her power or authority from God.However, few, if any, were delusional enough to actually believe themselves to be a god. An exception to this was Alexander the Great of Macedon. In 334 BCE at the age of twenty-two, he and his army crossed the Hellespont and embarked on a decade-long journey to conquer the Persian Empire. As a supposed descendant of Achilles, Alexander believed his final victory over King Darius III was his destiny. By the time of his death in 323 BCE, he was convinced that he was not the son of King Philip II but, instead, was the son of the omnipotent Greek god Zeus.
Alexander as Ammon-Zeus
DIVINE PARENTAGE
This impression that Alexander was the son of a god actually predates his birth. The future king of Asia was really only half-Macedonian - a fact that would cause many in King Philip's inner circle to oppose his son's ascension to the throne. While his “father” was pure Macedonian, his mother, Olympias, was of royal blood from the province of Epirus, southwest of Macedon.Epirus was an old feudal kingdom, and like many of its neighboring kingdoms, the imperial family traced its ancestry to one of the Olympian gods - a temple to Zeus was located in its capital city. The family of Olympias, the Molossians, maintained that they were related to Achilles, who, according to Homer ’s Iliad, was the tragic hero of the Trojan War. Her ancestors were descended from Molassas, the son of Andromache and Neoptolemus - a son of Achilles - who had slain King Priam of Troy at the Altar of Zeus Herkeios. This claim made Alexander to be a descendant of heroes, something his mother never discouraged.
ALEXANDER BELIEVED IN BOTH THE LABORS OF HIS FOREFATHER HERACLES & THE EXPLOITS OF HIS MOTHER'S ANCESTOR ACHILLES.
There are a number of versions of the unexplained events surrounding the young king's birth (supposedly) on July 20, 356 BCE. According to one legend, on the day of Alexander's birth, the Greek goddess of the hunt Artemis was away attending his birth when her temple at Ephesos - one of the seven wonders of the ancient world - burned to the ground. Another says that on the night Alexander was born, Philip II was away in battle when he received three separate pieces of news: his loyal commander Parmenio had defeated the Illyrians, his race horse was victorious at the Olympic games (he was reportedly the happiest at hearing this), and his wife Olympias had given birth to a son. However, the one story that bolstered Alexander's belief in his own divinity was revealed to him before he left Macedon for Asia. His mother pulled him aside and recounted a series of events occurring the night before her wedding. Supposedly, Olympias was asleep in her bedchamber when a clap of thunder awakened her. Suddenly, a bolt of lightning (evidently this was the god Zeus) shot into her room and struck her in her womb - miraculously without harming her - a flash of light immediately followed. Concerning this version of Alexander's birth, the historian Plutarch wrote in his Greek Lives, “…when Alexander was setting out on his eastern campaign, Olympias accompanied him during the procession, told him in private the secret of his birth, and urged him to entertain ambitions worthy of his parentage.” (312)
King Philip, who claimed to be a descendant of Zeus's son Heracles ( Hercules in Roman mythology ), also had a revelation about his son. According to Plutarch, after they were married, “Philip dreamt that he was pressing a seal on his wife's womb, and that the emblem on the seal was the figure of a lion.” Although there are some who dismiss Philip's dream, it was interpreted by Aristander of Telmessus as meaning that Olympias was already pregnant and that the son she carried would be both bold and lion-like. As Alexander would find out years later, the temple priests at Siwa would confirm his suspicions about his divine parentage: Zeus, not Philip, was his real father.
Alexander the Great
ALEXANDER'S RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
There are some who do not look upon Alexander as “great.” They dismiss his purported “divinity” and question his ruthless nature, particularly his responsibility for the deaths of thousands. However, whether he actually considered himself a god is overshadowed by how he is remembered in history. Regardless of how is considered by others, he personally believed himself to be a deeply religious individual. To him Zeus was the father (not literally) of all mankind - not just the Greeks and Macedonians but also the Persians, Egyptians and Indians. As he crossed Asia, he remained open-minded about the “barbarians” and their customs - he even made a sacrifice to the Egyptian god Apis at Memphis. Although he may have respected their religion and culture, he still believed in the superiority of the Greek civilization, and to him, Aristotle, his old tutor, was the leading exponent of that Greek culture.
To Alexander the gods of Olympus were present everywhere, and their wishes were revealed to man through oracles and omens - this can be seen in his respect for the oracles at Delphi and Siwa. Alexander respected the rich history of the Greeks, sleeping with a copy of the Iliad under his pillow. He believed in both the labors of his forefather Heracles and the exploits of his mother's ancestor Achilles. He sacrificed daily and even organized festivals as he travelled through Asia. Because his victories were sanctioned by the gods, before and after each battle, he would pray and sacrifice to them.
Before crossing the Hellespont, Alexander visited the oracle at Delphi. Unfortunately, it was closed, and on that day deliveries of the oracle were forbidden, but the king was not one to accept defeat of any kind and called for the priestess Pythia to appear; she abruptly refused. Again, Alexander would not accept her defiance, and dragged her out to the oracle to answer his question: What did the gods say about his expedition to Asia? Realizing it was useless to resist, she simply told him he would be invincible. Plutarch wrote,
…he went up to her residence himself and started to drag her against her will towards the temple, whereupon, apparently overcome by his forcefulness, she said, 'You are invincible, my son.' On hearing this, Alexander declared that this was the only prophecy he needed…(323).
From the oracle, he crossed the Hellespont to Asia Minor, but before touching Asian soil, he threw a spear into the ground, claiming Asia as a reward from the gods. From there Alexander travelled northward to visit the ruins of Troy where he made a sacrifice to Athena and placed garlands on Achilles grave.
ALEXANDER'S ACHIEVEMENTS
From his father (Philip not Zeus), Alexander inherited a highly disciplined army, and like his father, the Macedonian king was a great military commander. He was both a brilliant strategist and tactician. History tells us that he never lost a battle. His admirers claim he had the uncanny ability to quickly evaluate his enemy and make a decision. Even at the young age of 18 he demonstrated this remarkable talent when he joined his father in 338 BCE against the Athenians at Chaeronea. During the height of the battle, he was even able to surround and defeat the famed Sacred Band of Thebes. After Philip's death in 336 BCE, Alexander realized at the age of 20 that before he could cross into Asia Minor to fulfill his father's vision of conquering Persia, he had to win the support of the army. Standing alongside Philip's trusted commander Antipater, he faced an assembly of Macedonian troops. Many of these veterans were tired of war, and Philip's death meant that the possibility of war had ended. As he stood before them and cried, Alexander promised each of them glory ( arête ) and riches. To a man they swore their loyalty.
Alexander the Great
Throughout the long days and months marching across the deserts of Asia, Alexander continually earned the respect of his men. They saw a commander who withstood the hardships and dangers alongside them, fighting beside them, eating when and what they ate, and refusing water if there wasn't enough for everyone. Unlike his counterpart King Darius, he led his men from the front. This sometimes careless concern for his own well-being would cause him to be wounded eight times. Over the next few years, Alexander and his army would be victorious at Granicus, Issus and Tyre. An incident occurred after Issus that demonstrated his extreme confidence, even at a young age. Darius had sent a messenger to Alexander with terms - basically to split Asia. The old commander Parmenio suggested accepting the terms, but the king replied (accounts vary), “So would I, if I were Parmenio, but I am Alexander, I cannot.” In 332 BCE he crossed into Egypt, and it would be in Egypt that he received validation that he was truly the son of Zeus.
ZEUS- AMMON
The people of Egypt were over-joyed to see Alexander; they had hated the conquering Persians who showed little respect for their religion and customs. Alexander, on the other hand, respected their religious traditions, even making sacrifices at their temples. However, before embarking on his final meeting with King Darius at Gaugamela, he wanted to visit one place in particular, the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon at Siwa (Siwah) located at an oasis between Egypt and Libya. The Greeks had long known of the oracle amd identified the Egyptian god Ammon with their own Zeus. The king knew of its reputation for infallibility - both the Greek heroes Heracles and Perseus had consulted it. Among the questions he wished to ask the temple priest were: Was Philip his true father or was he the son of Zeus and, lastly, was he invincible?
Crossing the Libyan Desert would not be easy, and despite being told the dangers, Alexander still chose to go. Of course, as he had been warned, he and his men soon got lost. However, according to legend, two ravens (Ptolemy later wrote that it was snakes) directed them to safety. According to myth, Alexander sensed the ravens had been sent by the gods - divine intervention - and ordered his men to follow them; the ravens flew slowly, leading the men to Siwa. Plutarch wrote that Zeus had even provided them with rain to “relieve them of the fear of thirst.” He added,
…the travelers were wandering aimlessly around and getting separated from one another in their ignorance of which way to go, some crows appeared and took on the role of expedition leaders: they would fly swiftly on ahead as long as the party stayed with them, and would wait for them if the others fell behind and slowed down (337).
Map of Alexander the Great's Conquests
Upon arriving at the temple, Alexander was met by the priest who greeted him in rather poor Greek, stating “O, paidios” meaning “Oh, son of god.” Some believe he meant to say “O, paidion” or “Oh, my son.” Apparently, Alexander seemed pleased with the mispronunciation. The visit would completely change Alexander, for the priest confirmed what he had already been told: he was the son of Zeus and had been given the rule of the world. Alexander now honestly knew whose blood ran through his veins; he was truly the son of Zeus. Upon his return to Memphis, he made a sacrifice to Zeus. While there he received two delegations - one from Miletus and another from Erythrae - and both told him that their city's oracle confirmed him to be the son of Zeus. Although he believed they may only have been saying that to win favor, he hoped they would still spread the word. The always unruly Greek cities of Athens, Sparta and Thebes might think twice before causing the son of a god trouble. Plutarch wrote,
He generally behaved haughtily towards non-Greeks and made it seem as though he was fully convinced of his divine birth and parentage, but he kept his assumption of divinity within reasonable bounds and did not overdo it when he was dealing with Greeks (338).
CROSSING INTO ASIA
From Egypt Alexander and his army crossed into Asia and through Mesopotamia where, although outnumbered, they defeated for the second time the forces of King Darius. Alexander was now the king of all Asia. Unfortunately, the defeat would bring an end to Darius at the hands of his commander Bessus. From Gaugamela the new king paraded triumphantly into the capital city of Babylon. From there he conquered Bactria where he met and married Roxanne, the mother of his son Alexander IV. Next, he marched into India defeating King Porus at Hydaspes. Months later he returned to Babylon. The victories over Darius and Porus had drained him. His men were tired; they wanted to return home to Greece and Macedon.There had been rumors of a mutiny or conspiracy to assassinate him, but most importantly his demeanor and attitude had been affected. He began to adopt Persian customs such as donning the traditional Persian purple and white tunic and wearing a diadem. He sat on an elevated, gold throne surrounded by guards. He began to require people to prostrate themselves before him ( proskynesis ). While the Persians concurred becuase it was their custom, the Greeks refused. To them Alexander was mortal: he was not a god.
This attitude can best be seen in an incident that occurred shortly before his death. After being called to Babylon to answer a number of accusations, the Macedon regent Antipater refused to appear; instead, he sent his young son Cassander to make an appeal on his behalf. Unfortunately, Cassander made a serious mistake by laughing after seeing a number of Persians prostrating themselves before the king. Seeing his laugh as a sign of disrespect, Alexander grew enraged and slammed Cassander's head against a nearby wall. The incident would haunt Cassander for the remainder of his life. Years later, whenever he saw a statue or painting of Alexander, he would faint. After Alexander's death, Antipater and Cassander were both accused of poisoning him.
Alexander the Great in Combat
DEATH & LEGACY
On June 10, 323 BCE Alexander the Great died. Regrettably, Alexander had not named a successor or heir. With little alternative, his vast empire became divided among his commanders in a plan that resulted in three decades of conflict. While the commanders may have argued over their small pieces of territory, people reacted very differently throughout the empire.After hearing of his death, Macedonians cried and went running through the streets. Persians, as per their custom, shaved their heads. Darius's mother supposedly starved herself to death. Without anyone capable of making a decision, the commander Perdiccus assumed control of the king's body, planning to return to Macedon where a tomb was being prepared.
In 322 BCE the body began its long journey home. From Babylon to Damascus people gathered along the roads. A team of 64 mules and a military guard accompanied the funeral cart. Alexander's gold coffin was adorned with sculptures and paintings as well as jewels. Unfortunately, the king would never reach Macedon. Ptolemy, the regent of Egypt, kidnapped it and took it to Memphis. This theft was one of many incidents that brought Ptolemy and Perdiccus to war, but after three failed attempts to invade Egypt, Perdiccus was killed by his own troops. The Wars of the Diadochi would continue, and Alexander's vast empire would never be reunited. In 316 BCE, his mother, wife, and son would ultimately die at the orders of Cassander, the regent of his homeland Macedon.
While his empire did not flourish after him, Alexander's memory certainly did. Although many consider him an icon, there are others who see him as both a hero and a villain. To those who admire him he changed the world. He brought Greek culture and the Hellenistic Age to Asia, and in some minds laid the foundations for Christianity. The great empire he built spread Greek philosophy, art and literature. Decades later, after invading and defeating Greece in the Macedonian Wars, the Romans benefitted from Alexander and the Greeks as educated Romans learnt Greek; they hired Greek tutors for their children; many of the more affluent Romans sent their sons to study in Athens. Even the Roman religion was heavily influenced by the gods of Olympus. To those great commnaders who followed him such as Hannibal and Julius CaesarAlexander was the yardstick against whom they measured their own victories. Hannibal called him the greatest general of all time while Caesar wept at the sight of Alexander's statue.
Alexander the Great
CONCLUSION
However, admired he may have been by those of his own era as well as those later, the question still exists as to Alexander's belief in his own destiny. History validates that he was a highly perceptive commander who led a well-disciplined army across a hostile terrain to victory. To many he was “a visionary.” He was gifted with both intelligence and courage, often fighting against armies which vastly outnumbered him. He has been described as audacious, ambitious, a risk-taker and lastly, a fearsome opponent. From the time of his father's death, he continually proved himself a capable leader, leading by example.His deeply religious conviction together with validation from his mother, the oracles and his victories over the Persians convinced him that he was a man of destiny.
How can one assess Alexander? Before he turned 23, he led an army across the Hellespont and into Asia. He guided this army from the front, not the rear. He was loyal, a trait that inspired his men. However, there are those who do not see him as Alexander the Great. To them he is a mass murderer, responsible for the countless deaths of Greeks, Macedonians, and Persians. To others he died too soon, so one cannot determine his place in history. However, whether he truly considered himself a god is overshadowed by how he has been remembered. In his The Campaigns of Alexander the historian Arrian wrote of his admiration,
It is my belief that there was in those days no nation, no city, no single individual beyond the reach of Alexander's name; never in all the world was there another like him, and therefore I cannot but feel that some power more than human was concerned in his birth…(398).
Whether or not Alexander was a god or if he believed himself to be one, his accomplishments have stood the test of time and he is still admired by students of history more than two millennia after his passing.
LICENSE
Article based on information obtained from these sources:with permission from the Website Ancient History Encyclopedia
Content is available under License Creative Commons: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported. CC-BY-NC-SA License