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Three Kingdoms Period in Korea › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Three Kingdoms Period of ancient Korea (57 BCE – 668 CE) is so-called because it was dominated by the three kingdoms of Baekje ( Paekche ), Goguryeo ( Koguryo ), and Silla. There was also, though, a fourth entity, the Gaya ( Kaya) confederation at the southern tip of the Korean peninsula. These four states were in constant rivalry, and so they formed ever-changing alliances one with another and with the two dominant regional powers of China and Japan. Eventually, the Silla kingdom, with significant Tang Dynasty aid, would come to dominate and in the late 7th century CE form a single state, the Unified Silla Kingdom.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
All of the kingdoms began from local tribes who settled and built fortified towns. These then grouped together to form single political entities. According to a tradition based on the 12th-century CE Samguk sag i ('Historical Records of the Three States'), this happened from the 1st century BCE, but modern historians prefer the 2nd or 3rd century CE (or even later) as a more accurate date for when the states could be described as having more centralised governments.
In the 2nd to 3rd century CE Goguryeo began to expand its territory by conquering the northern Chinese commanderies but suffered two serious setbacks in the mid-4th century CE when Murong Huang invaded from China and sacked Kungnaesong, taking 50,000 inhabitants prisoner (342 CE). Then the Baekje king Kunchogo, having already conquered the Mahan federation, attacked Pyongyang and killed king Gogugwon (371 CE). The Baekje were prospering due to their fertile agricultural lands and strong trade links with both China and Japan via the Yellow Sea and South Sea.
THE THREE KINGDOMS PERIOD SAW THE FORMATION OF CENTRALISED STATES IN KOREA WHERE KINGS GOVERNED WITH THE AID OF A RIGIDLY HIERARCHICAL ARISTOCRACY.
The defeat to Baekje in 371 CE had driven Goguryeo to form an alliance with Silla which set the foundations for a prosperous 5th century CE under the reign of Gwanggaeto (391-413), who lived up to his title of 'broad expander of domain' and permitted Goguryeo to dominate northern Korea, most of Manchuria, and a portion of Inner Mongolia. A new capital was made at Pyongyang in 427 CE while military success continued when Hansong (modern Gwangju), the Baekje capital, was sacked in 475 CE, and king Gaero executed.
Baekje formed an alliance with the Silla kingdom between 433 and 553 CE. Silla, during the reign of king Beopheung (aka Pophung, r. 514-540 CE), achieved a much greater degree of centralisation. It had a splendid capital at Kumsong ( Gyeongju) and was prospering on the eastern coast due to agricultural innovations such as oxen-drawn ploughs and irrigation systems, as well as an abundance of natural resources, especially gold and iron. The Baekje-Silla alliance, however, did not prevent Goguryeo gaining control of 90% of ancient Korea.
Silla Ceramic Warrior
The Cinderella of the Three Kingdoms period was the Gaya confederation deep in the south of the peninsula. Unlike the other states, it never developed into a fully centralised kingdom partly because it was squeezed by its two more dominant neighbours Baekje and Silla. It did benefit from rich iron ore deposits, but in the mid-4th century CE Gaya was attacked by Baekje and then Silla flexed its muscles and captured the capital Pon Kaya in 532 CE. Other Gaya cities soon fell and by 562 CE the state was no more.
Meanwhile, Baekje's alliance with Silla came to a dramatic end when the latter occupied the lower Han River valley. In 554 CE, at the battle at Kwansan-song Fortress (modern Okchon) Baekje tried to reclaim its lost territory, but their 30,000-strong army was defeated and King Song killed. This move gave Silla access to the western coast and the Yellow Sea, providing the possibility to forge greater links with China.
Things were still going well in the 7th century CE for Goguryeo when their general Ulchi Mundok won a great victory at the battle of the Salsu River in 612 CE, defeating a massive invading Chinese Sui army. Two more attacks were defeated, and a 480-km (300 miles) long defensive wall was built in 628 CE so as to deter any further Chinese ambitions. This did not stop the Tang Dynasty – ambitious to play off these troublesome southern kingdoms against themselves – forming an army and naval force and attacking Goguryeo in 644 CE, but the great general Yang Manchun once again brought victory to the Koreans.
Goguryeo joined forces with Baekje against the Silla in 642 CE and conquered Taeya-song (modern Hapchon) and around 40 border fortresses. The Tangs had not given up in the north, though, and more attacks followed which eventually Goguryeo, weakened by the constant necessity for defence and by its own internal divisions, was unable to resist. Pyongyang was besieged in 661 and 667 CE by a Tang army, and this time, the city fell and with it the state of Goguryeo. In 668 CE the Goguryeo king Pojang (r. 642-668 CE) was removed to China along with 200,000 of his subjects in a forced resettlement programme.
Gaya Iron Helmet
Baekje was not faring any better than Goguryeo. The kingdom failed to tempt aid from Japan and could not prevent the fall of their capital Sabi when attacked by a joint Tang and Silla force on land and sea in 660 CE. A Silla army of 50,000 led by the general Kim Yushin and a naval force of 130,000 men sent by the Tang emperor Gaozong proved more than enough to crush the Baekje army. Uija, the last Baekje king, was taken prisoner to China, and the kingdom followed the way of Gaya and Goguryeo. By 668 CE Silla, after dealing with the Tang army left to govern the Chinese provinces which Goguryeo and Baekje had become, was in control of all of Korea, establishing what became known as the Unified Silla Kingdom.
GOVERNMENT & SOCIAL CLASSES
All of the states in this period had a similar system of government and social organisation. A monarch ruled with the aid of senior administrative officials drawn from a landed aristocracy. Government appointed officials administered the provinces with the aid of local tribal leaders. The majority of the population were landed peasantry and the state extracted a tax from them, which was usually payable in kind. The state could also oblige citizens to fight in the army or work on government projects such as building fortifications. At the very bottom of the social ladder were slaves (typically prisoners of war or those in serious debt) and criminals, who were forced to work on the estates of the aristocracy. Society was rigidly divided into social ranks, epitomised by the Silla sacred bone rank system, which was based on birth and dictated one's work possibilities, tax obligations, and even the clothes one could wear or the utensils one could use.
RELATIONS WITH CHINA & JAPAN
Despite the conflicts between China and the various Korean states over the centuries, the two nations were frequent trading partners. Iron, gold, and horses went to China, and silk, tea, and writing materials came in the other direction. There were close cultural ties too, with the Koreans adopting the Chinese writing system, the Chinese kingly title of wang, Chinese coinage, literature, burial practices, and elements of art. The Korean states, traditionally practitioners of shamanism, adopted first Confucianism, then Taoism and Buddhism from China, making the latter the official state religion.
Gilt-bronze Maitreya
Relations with the Wa (Wae) of Japan were particularly strong in the Gaya confederation. The latter was the more advanced culture and exported large quantities of iron, but just how much one state influenced or even controlled the other is still debated by scholars and clouded by national bias. Baekje culture was exported to Japan, especially via teachers, scholars, and artists, who also spread there Chinese culture such as the classic texts of Confucius.
THREE KINGDOMS ART
The art of the Baekje kingdom is generally considered the finest of the Three Kingdoms, but unfortunately for posterity, this kingdom provides the fewest artefacts having suffered the greatest destruction thanks to warfare and looting. Gaya and Goguryeo have suffered a similar fate, especially as their tombs had easily accessible entrances. The more enclosed tombs of Silla have been a better source of art objects from the Three Kingdoms period.
High-fired grey stoneware was produced by the Baekje, Gaya, and Silla kingdoms (little Goguryeo pottery survives). Typical forms are the stemmed cup, bowls with wide stands ( kobae ), horned cups, tall bulbous vases, and figure-vessels representing animals, boats, temples, and warriors. Ceramics were decorated with incisions, applied additional clay pieces, and by cutting away the clay to create a latticework effect.
Tomb -painting is best seen in the tombs of Goguryeo. Over 80 of them have chambers decorated with brightly painted scenes of everyday life, portraits of the occupants, and mythical creatures. The paintings were made by applying the paint either directly onto the stone wall or onto a lime plaster base.
Silla Horse Painting
Gilt-bronze work was a typical medium of the region, perhaps best seen in the Baekje incense burner from near Sabi which represents a celestial mountain supported by a dragon and topped by a phoenix. Buddhist art was popular throughout the peninsula, and gilt-bronze was used to produce expressive statuettes of Buddha, Maitreya (the coming Buddha), and bodhisattvas. Baekje artists also sculpted cliff faces to represent the Buddha such as at Sosan. Another use of gilt-bronze was in royal crowns, which were also made in sheet-gold, most famously by the Silla kingdom. These have trees and stag-like branches, which represent a link with shamanism. Gold crowns and jewellery of all kinds were made using goldwork techniques such as wiring and granulation. Jade, often carved into crescent moon shapes, was a popular form of embellishment for these glittering adornments.
THREE KINGDOMS ARCHITECTURE
Unfortunately, there are few surviving buildings from the Three Kingdoms period. However, archaeology and surviving tombs and their wall-paintings have permitted historians to identify the principal characteristics of palace and temple architecture throughout our period. These characteristics include tiled roofs which slope out and upwards at the corners, wooden and stone columns, interior paper-wall partitions, inner courtyards and gardens, and the whole placed on a raised platform. Harmoniously blending the structure into the immediate natural environment was another important consideration for Korean architects. The 7th-century CE Miruk temple at Iksan (now lost) is worth special mention. Built by the Baekje king Mu, it was the largest Buddhist temple in East Asia and had two stone pagodas and one in wood. One stone pagoda survives, albeit with only six of its original 7-9 storeys.
There are remains of Goguryeo fortification walls which had gates and towers from Tonggou, Fushun, and Pyongyang.Excavations have revealed that the latter also had very large buildings measuring up to 80 x 30 m and palaces with gardens which had artificial hills and lakes. Buildings were decorated with impressed roof tiles carrying lotus flower and demon mask designs.
Tomb of Gwanggaeto the Great
An unusual structure is the mid-7th century CE Cheomseongdae observatory at the Silla capital of Gyeongju. Nine metres tall, it acted like a sundial but also has a south-facing window which captures the sun's rays on the interior floor on each equinox. It is the oldest surviving observatory in East Asia.
Tombs abound, with more than 10,000 from Goguryeo alone. These first took the form of cairns built using stone river cobbles (Goguryeo) or pits set into natural mounds (Gaya and Silla), then cut-block pyramids, and finally earth mounds within which were built stone chambers (or brick in the case of Baekje), which all had a horizontal entrance except those of the Silla which had no entrance. The tombs show various architectural features like corbelled roofing, octagonal pillars, and pivoted stone doors. One of the largest such mound tombs, actually composed of two mounds and containing a Silla king and queen, is the Hwangnam Taechong tomb. Dating to the 5-7th century CE, it measures 80 x 120 m, and its mounds are 22 and 23 m high.Another famous example is at Kungnaesong (modern Tonggou) and thought to be that of the Goguryeo king Gwanggaeto the Great (r. 391–412 CE). 75 metres long and using blocks measuring 3 x 5 metres, it also has four smaller dolmen -like structures at each corner. Finally, the tomb of Baekje king Muryeong-Wang is worth a mention as within its huge earth mound there is a semicircular vault lined with hundreds of moulded bricks, many decorated with lotus flower and geometric designs.The structure, located near Gongju, dates to 525 CE, as indicated by an inscription plaque within the tomb.
This article was made possible with generous support from the British Korean Society.
Unified Silla Kingdom › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Unified Silla Kingdom (668- 935 CE) was the first dynasty to rule over the whole of the Korean peninsula. After centuries of battles with the other states of the Three Kingdoms Period (57 BCE - 668 CE) Silla benefitted from the help of the Chinese Tang Dynasty to finally defeat its rivals and form a unified Korean state. In the following century, the kingdom would flourish and produce some of the finest art and architecture yet seen in ancient Korea. In the 10th century CE Silla fell to the resurgent northern kingdom, now known as Goryeo, which would rule until 1392 CE.
THE UNIFICATION OF KOREA
The Three Kingdoms period in Korea stretched from the 1st century BCE to the late 7th century CE and involved four political entities: the Kingdoms of Baekje ( Paekche ), Goguryeo ( Koguryo ), and Silla, and the Gaya ( Kaya ) confederation.At various times China also took an active interest in the region, especially under the Han, Sui, and Tang dynasties. In the 660s CE, with military aid from the Tangs, who were eager to have these troublesome southern kingdoms weaken themselves fighting against each other, the Silla kingdom was able to defeat their long-standing rivals. This still left the Tangs as a dangerous player in Korean affairs, but while they were preoccupied with a rising Tibet, Silla armies defeated the Chinese forces which remained in Korea in the battles at Maesosong (675 CE) and Kibolpo (676 CE).
CONSOLIDATION & PROSPERITY
The new state, referred to as the Unified Silla Kingdom ( Tong-il Silla ) to distinguish it from its smaller predecessor the Silla Kingdom ( Ko-Silla - 'Old Silla'), controlled all of Korea as far north as the Taedong River. Their immediate northern neighbour was the unfriendly Balhae ( Parhae ) kingdom in Manchuria, which had been formed by exiles from the old Goguryeo kingdom and members of the semi-nomadic Malgal.
THE PROLONGED ABSENCE OF WAR IN THE UNIFIED SILLA KINGDOM PERIOD MEANT THAT THE ARTS & SCIENCES FLOURISHED AS NEVER BEFORE.
The Silla kings were now dominated by the Kim clan with only a handful of kings coming from other aristocratic families. To help unify the country politically ruling aristocrats from the fallen kingdoms were forcibly relocated to where they were less likely to stir up rebellion but given a status equal to their Silla counterparts. To further ensure loyalty, certain members of these aristocratic families were required to regularly present themselves at Kumsong (also then known as Sorabol and today as Gyeongju /Kyongju), still the capital city. Those individuals regarded as too dangerous to the state and prisoners of war were enslaved to work on the estates of the aristocracy, in manufacturing workshops, or on government building projects. The overall size of the slave population is suggested by the records that some aristocrats had as many as 3,000 slave workers.
The whole state was now divided into nine provinces (three in each of the old three kingdoms) and five secondary capitals.Each province ( chu ) was governed by a general commandant administrator with the title of chonggwan. The title was changed to todok (governor) in the 9th century CE. Each province had 117 prefectures ( kun ), each of which was further divided into 293 counties ( hyon ), with each one being composed of various villages and hamlets ( chon ) and those specially created settlements for undesired persons ( hyang, so, and pugok ). Every level had its own chief administrator, all of whom were regularly supervised by a government inspector or oesajong. A further measure to ensure local loyalties were maintained was to compel village headmen to send their eldest sons to work in the capital administration or military, a process known as ( sangsuri ).
Unified Silla Kingdom, Korea
Gyeongju became even more splendid in this period. It is described in the Samguk yusa collection of texts as having an astonishing 35 palaces, 55 streets, 1360 districts, and 178,936 houses. This would allow for a population of around 900,000.One palace was built on the shore of an artificial lake while another had watercourses running through it so that floating wine cups could be floated to guests. There were even palaces and gardens specifically for each of the four seasons with exotic flora and fauna. New temples were built or extended such as the massive Bulguksa ( Temple of the Buddha Land) which rose from a lotus lake.
The wider kingdom prospered due to a thriving agricultural industry, which was made more productive via extensive irrigation projects, and trade throughout the East China Sea. The prolonged absence of war also meant that the arts and sciences flourished as never before. Architecture, sculpture, metalwork, mathematics, and astronomy were particular areas of excellence. History became an important study, and it was at this time that improvements were made in woodblock printing.
RELATIONS WITH CHINA
Despite the Silla kingdom's refusal to become just another Chinese province, relations with China were not soured, in fact, the young Korean state became a loyal ally. The influence of Chinese culture continued to be significant, as it had been throughout the previous Three Kingdoms period. Both Confucianism and Buddhism remained an important part of the Silla education system, and the latter was still the official state religion, practised by all levels of society. The most famous of all Buddhistscholar-monks belongs to this period – Wonyho, who popularised the faith in the 7th century CE. If anything Confucianism became stronger in the Unified Silla with a National Confucian Academy established in 682 CE and an examination for state administrators introduced in 788 CE.
Unified Silla Kingdom Gold Buddha
There was a healthy trade between the two states too with Chinese luxury goods such as silk, books, tea, and art being imported while Korea exported metals (especially gold and silver ), ginseng, hemp goods, manufactured goods, horses, and sent students and scholars to China. There were even Silla controlled trading areas in Chinese territory, such was the volume of trade. Relations were also maintained with southern Japan, especially in the Nara and Heian periods. Arab merchants, who brought spices, carpets, and jewellery, were another point of contact with the wider world. Finally, glass finds within Korea include Roman, Sasanian, and Syrian vessels attesting to a thriving trade network throughout the period.
SILLA ART
Metalwork continued to be a fine Silla art, best seen in the gold crowns from various tombs, but the Unified Period also saw a new art form develop, that of making large bronze-cast bells ( pomjong ) which were used in Buddhist temples to announce services. The largest example is from Pandok-sa, also known as the Emille Bell, which was cast in 771 CE to honour King Songdok. 3.3 metres tall and over 2.2 metres in diameter, it is decorated with lotus flowers and heavenly beings with a suspension loop in the form of a dragon. Weighing almost 19 tons, the bell is now on display in the Gyeongju National Museum. Another popular art form was bronze-cast sculpture, especially Buddhist figures which were gilded and polished.Monumental figures were also made using cast iron with parts made separately and then assembled and painted or covered in plaster. Yet another use of bronze was to manufacture intricate boxes to store relics and important texts. These are known as a sarira and could take the form of pagodas and trees.
Unified Silla pottery displays a marked influence of Buddhism. Cremation necessitated the manufacture of urns for ashes, and Buddhist motifs prevail in stamped decoration such as lotus flowers and clouds, often with lotus buds for lid handles. Everyday pottery was left undecorated, but special pieces show a greater density of decoration than previously, and there is the first ash glaze which would develop into the later celadon ceramics of the Goryeo period. Tombs have also revealed pottery figures and models, which include servants, warriors, and animals.
Buddha Statue, Seokguram Grotto
Other surviving examples of Unified Silla artistry come in the form of stone lanterns, roof tiles with hideous faces to ward off evil spirits, floor tiles decorated with lotus petals (increasing from the standard 6-8 of previous periods to either 16 or 32), and calligraphy (unfortunately, no paper examples survive) by such greats as Kim Saeng (again no works exist today), and seen in the stonework of the Hwaom sutra passages at the Hwaom temple in the South Jeolla province.
SILLA ARCHITECTURE
We know from descriptions that the palaces of Gyeongju had their own gardens and lakes, but, sadly, all that survives of the buildings themselves are decorative floor tiles. Notable surviving structures at the capital include two stone pagodas – the Dabotap and Seokgatap – which both date to the 8th century CE, traditionally 751 CE. Stone pagodas are Korea's unique contribution to Buddhist architecture (in Japan they are of wood and in China of brick), and this pair were originally part of the magnificent 8th century CE Bulguksa Temple (Pulguk-sa), which now stands restored but only a fraction of its original size.
One of the outstanding stone structures from the Unified Silla period is the Buddhist Seokguram Grotto (Sokkuram) temple east of Gyeongju. Constructed between 751 and 774 CE, it contains a circular domed inner chamber within which is a massive 3.45 metre high seated Buddha. The walls are decorated with 41 large figure-sculptures of disciples and bodhisattvas.
Seokgatap Pagoda, Gyeongju
From the 7th century CE onwards, Silla tombs became more like the earlier tombs of the Goguryeo and Baekje with a horizontal entrance and a smaller earth mound on top, which was then faced with stone slabs. The slabs are frequently decorated with relief carvings of the twelve animals of the oriental zodiac. Each figure carries a weapon and so offers symbolic protection of the tomb. Two of the finest examples are the tombs of the general Kim Yu-sin (7th century CE) and King Wonseong (8th century CE) at Kwaerung. Stupas were built too, the large domed buildings built as memorials to particularly renowned Buddhist monks. The most famous stupa is that of Toyun, founder of the Saja-san sect, at the Ssanbong-sa temple at Hwasun while the oldest, built in 790 CE, commemorates Monk Yomgo.
DECLINE
The state began a slow decline from the 8th century CE, largely due to the rigidity of its class structure. This was based on the bone rank system, the strict social classification of entitlements and obligations dictated by one's birth, which continued to operate as in the old Silla kingdom and which completely dominated the workings of the aristocracy and state administration.Not only did the lack of opportunity to rise above the class of one's birth create a stagnation of ideas and innovations but the aristocracy began, too, to resent the power of the king. At the other end of the social ladder, the peasantry grew more and more resentful of the incessant taxes levied upon them. On top of that, local landed aristocrats ( songju ) became ever more difficult to control from Gyeongju. The state was falling apart from within.
Two individuals would cause particular trouble for the Silla kings. One Gyeon Hwon (Kyon Hwon), a peasant leader, took advantage of the political unrest in 892 CE and formed a revival of the old Baekje kingdom in the south-west portion of the peninsula. Meanwhile, an aristocratic-Buddhist monk leader, Gung Ye (Kungye), declared a new Goguryeo state in the north in 901 CE, known as Later Goguryeo. There then followed another messy power struggle for control of the peninsula just as there had been in the Three Kingdoms period. Kyon Hwon attacked Gyeongju in 927 CE while Gung Ye's unpopular and fanatical tyranny led to his death at the hands of his own people. He was succeeded by his first minister, the able Wang Geon( Wang Kon ), in 918 CE who attacked Later Baekje, now beset by leadership in-fighting, and then Silla. The last Silla king, Gyeongsun (Kyongsun), surrendered in 935 CE and left Wang Kon to unify the country once again but under a new name, the Goryeo (Kuryo) Dynasty, which would rule Korea from 918 CE to 1392 CE.
This article was made possible with generous support from the British Korean Society.
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