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Definition and Origins
Karma is a Sanskrit word that primarily means 'action' but for South Asian Religions (and Philosophy ) it is not limited to that as the term has gained various meanings and connotations over time. The term karma connects actions and results. Good and bad happenings experienced in this life are aggregate results of deeds in this and previous lives. This is known as the Law of Karma and it is regarded as a natural and universal law. Karma not only justifies the present situation of an individual but also rationalizes the cycle of birth and death (or saṃsāra ) which is common in South Asian Philosophy.
EARLY SOURCES
The idea of Karma first appears in the oldest Hindu text the Rigveda (before c. 1500 BCE) with a limited meaning of ritual action which it continues to hold in the early ritual dominant scriptures until its philosophical scope is extended in the later Upanishads (c. 800 BCE – 300 BCE). The term gains a more philosophical weight when the consequences of actions are attached to it. Thus karma gains a moral or ethical dimension.
The autonomous causal function associated with karma in South Asian traditions largely differs from the perspective of Abrahamic Religions where God (divine agency) rewards or punishes all human actions. Thus, the Law of Karma vindicates God from the existence of evil. The actual functioning of karma, the intervention of the Almighty in overturning it, the ending of karma, etc. are intricate details which vary from tradition to tradition.
ALL GOOD ACTIONS LIKE CHARITY TO THE NEEDY AND ALL GOOD INTENTIONS OR WELL-WISHES FOR OTHERS ARE REWARDED AND VICE-VERSA.
KARMA IN PRACTICE
Karma as a reciprocal concept includes both action and intent. All good actions like charity to the needy, service to elders, help to kin, etc. and all good intentions or well-wishes for others are rewarded and vice-versa. This Law of Karma inspires an individual to follow two things (a) good deeds to avoid bad reciprocal results (b) adhere to some spiritual action to neutralize the effects of karma. The second point may not be common to all traditions. The ending of karma and karmic consequences releases one from the cycle of birth and death commonly known as mokṣa or nirvāṇa.
From a philosophical perspective, there is a lengthy debate between free-will and karma. If one is acting inappropriately now, one can justify this as a consequence of one's past only if karma exists. However, along with the theory of karma, one is bestowed with volition and one can act according to one's conscience. So while reaping the fruits of one's past karma, good or bad, one is accumulating new karma as well as acting on one's free-will. This also gives one an opportunity to act in such a way that one may liberate oneself.
KARMA IN DIFFERENT TRADITIONS
In Hinduism, the theory of karma is more dominant in the Vedānta School. For some schools like Mīmāṃsā, the role of karma is almost negligible. Most traditions agree on three types of karma: prārabdha, saṃcita, and kriyamāṇa which mean karma to be experienced in this lifetime, latent karma which we have not yet reaped, and karma that will result in our future lives, respectively. There is also a concept of jīvanmukta or a living individual who is actually liberated and thus does not accumulate karma any more. In later Hindu traditions which are primarily theistic, the grace of God plays an important role in overriding the karmic implications or completely relieving one and thus leading to mokṣa.
In Buddhism, essentially there is no soul. The unresolved karmas manifest into a new form composed of five skandhas(constituent elements of a being) in one of the six realms of saṃsāra. The eventual nirvāṇa (salvation) comes through the annihilation of residual karma which means the ceasing of the alleged existence of being. The actions with intention ( cetanā ) carried out by the mind, body and speech and which are driven by ignorance, desire and hatred lead to implications that tie one down in saṃsāra. Following the eightfold path - the set of eight righteous ways of thinking and acting suggested by Buddha - one can attain nirvāṇa.
In Jainism, karma is conceived as a subtle matter pervading the entire Universe in form of particles. These extremely subtle particles cling to the soul obscuring its intrinsic pristine form. It is sometimes described as the contamination that infiltrates the soul and taints it with various colours. Liberation is achieved through following a stringent path of purification. For Jainism, given the absence of an external divine agency, the Law of Karma becomes predominant as a governing law and a self-sustaining mechanism that governs the Universe.
Dhammapada › Antique Origins
Definition and Origins
Tipitaka (Sansktrit: Tripitaka ), the Buddhist canon, consists of three pitaka ( Tri means three and Pitaka refers to boxes), namely Vinaya or Monastic regimen, Sutta ( Sanskrit : Sutra ) or Discourses and Abhidhamma (Sanskrit: Abhidharma ) or Abstract doctrine. Dhammapada (Sanskrit: Dharmapada ) belongs to Khuddaka nikaya (Minor collection), which itself is a part of the Sutta pitaka. The name is a combination of two words Dharma and Pada. Dharma can be roughly translated into religious virtue and Pada into stanzas or steps.
TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA
Dhammapada is a collection of 423 verses as uttered by Gautama Buddha himself to his disciples. An anthology of moral precepts and maxims, it is divided into 26 chapters under such headers as Thought, Flowers, Old Age, Self, Happiness, Pleasure, Anger, Thirst, Brahmana and others. Though seemingly separated across so many chapters a fundamental thread runs through all the verses, which becomes perceptible on reading the text.
The teachings of Buddha focus on the way, the magga (Sankskrit: marga ) or path, that delivers a person from a life that is inescapably connected with desires, infatuation, sorrows, hate and an endless cycle of Becoming. “He whose appetites are stilled, who is not absorbed in enjoyment, who has perceived void and unconditioned freedom (Nirvâna),” continues Buddha, “his path is difficult to understand, like that of birds in the air” (No 93, Chapter VII). There is nirvana ( moksha for Hindu, fanafor Sufi mystic), here and now, not in a supposed afterlife.
THE TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA FOCUS ON THE WAY, THE MAGGA OR PATH, THAT DELIVERS A PERSON FROM A LIFE THAT IS INESCAPABLY CONNECTED WITH DESIRES, INFATUATION, SORROWS, HATE AND AN ENDLESS CYCLE OF BECOMING.
As because the ills that trouble of our lives stem from avidya (ignorance), all efforts of Buddhist doctrine are therefore directed to illumine that darkness, to carry us towards the highest summit of wisdom, unmoving, un-originated, uncontaminated. Verily he says, “Him I call indeed a Brâhmana who has traversed this miry road; the impassable world and its vanity, who has gone through, and reached the other shore, is thoughtful, guileless, free from doubts, free from attachment, and content” (No 414, Chapter XXVI).
The verses continue to enjoy such superlative popularity among people, both followers of the way and others, because they present axioms in a very plain language, easily accessible and relatable to all irrespective of “aristocracy of birth and intellect” (Coomaraswamy 1967, 249). In fact, to further ease the process of understanding, Buddhaghosa included a parable for nearly every verse, possibly uttered by Buddha, in his monumental work of Atthakatha.
The word 'Brahmana' in the preceding passage should not be confused with its homonymic counterpart, which denotes a caste. Its etymological meaning, ie a person who has realised Brahma, should be remembered to understand the whole of the last chapter of this book. The following verse from the same chapter should make it clear: “A man does not become a Brahmana by his platted hair, by his family or by birth; in whom there is truth and righteousness, he is blessed, he is a Brahmana” (No 393, Chapter XXVI).
Also, nirvana should not be considered equivalent to an ethical state just because the means to it are ethical, even if partly.The numerous exhortations of Gautama Buddha in Dhammapada if not properly considered may lead to this erroneous conclusion. In one of the verses, he succinctly reveals the nature of this unfettered bliss, “Him I call indeed a Brahmana who in this world is above good and evil, above the bondage of both, free from grief, from sin, and from impurity” (No 412, Chapter XXVI).
TRANSLATIONS
There is a general disagreement as to when it was reduced to a written format in Pali language. It can, however, be dated back to at least the 1st century BCE. While writing his commentary on Dhammapada, Buddhaghosa (a Buddhist scholar from 5th century CE) asserted that the Pali text before him was consolidated in the First Council itself held after Parinirvana of Buddha.His commentary known as Atthakatha (Sanskrit: Arthakatha) was written in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. While any debate in assigning a date to this manuscript may hold archaeological interest, the teachings of this sacred collection of verses are definitely independent of both time and creed.
Illustrated Buddhist Manuscript Cover
Translations of this book in various Asian languages are in existence from at least early 3rd century CE when it was translated to Chinese as Shamana (Sanskrit: Shramana ) by Wei Chi Lan and other Buddhist ascetics. Many such extant copies in vernacular languages abound in South, South-east Asian countries, not to mention Tibet.
First Latin translation by Dr Fausböll appeared in 1855, subsequent to which other prominent editions were published by DJ Gogerly, Max Müller etc. While it is nevertheless difficult to convey exactly the beauty and affection of the original stanzas in translation, all such initiatives have only contributed to make Dhammapada widely available among curious readers and scholars alike. In conclusion, nothing could be more apt than recalling the words of Gautama Buddha to his disciple Ananda, “… be ye lamps unto yourselves. Be ye a refuge to yourselves. Betake yourselves to no external refuge. Hold fast to the truth as a lamp. Hold fast as a refuge to the truth. Look not for refuge beside yourselves…” (Rhys Davids, Vol II, 108).
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