Goryeo › Silla » Ancient origins
Articles and Definitions › Contents
- Goryeo › Who Was
- Silla › Ancient History
Ancient civilizations › Historical and archaeological sites
Goryeo › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Goryeo (Koryo) ruled ancient Korea from 918 CE to 1392 CE. The kingdom oversaw an unprecedented flourishing in culture and arts with developments in architecture, ceramics, printing, and papermaking. The kingdom was repeatedly invaded by the Mongols in the 13th century CE and thereafter became less independent and more culturally influenced by their northern neighbours. Korean independence was re-established under the Joseon (Choson) dynasty from 1392 CE. Kuryo is the origin of modern Korea's English name.
THE FALL OF SILLA
The Unified Silla Kingdom (668- 935 CE) had held sway over the Korean peninsula for three centuries, but the state was in a slow decline. The rigidity of its class structure, based on the bone rank system, meant that few could rise above the position of their birth and ideas and innovation were stifled. The aristocracy began to resent the power of the king, landowners resisted centralised control, and the peasantry grew more and more rebellious over the incessant taxes levied upon them. The state was falling apart from within.
The period of political turmoil which followed is referred to as the Later Three Kingdoms period (889-935). Gyeon Hwon (Kyon Hwon), a peasant leader, took advantage of the political unrest in 892 CE and formed a revival of the old Baekjekingdom in the south-west portion of the peninsula. Meanwhile, an aristocratic Buddhist monk leader, Gung Ye (Kungye), declared a new Goguryeo state in the north in 901 CE, known as Later Goguryeo. There then followed a power struggle for control of the peninsula. Kyon Hwon attacked Gyeongju, the Silla capital in 927 CE while Gung Ye's unpopular and fanatical tyranny led to his death at the hands of his people. He was succeeded by his first minister, the able Wang Geon ( Wang Kon), in 918 CE who attacked Later Baekje, now beset by leadership in-fighting, and then Silla. The last Silla king, Kyongsun, surrendered in 935 CE and left Wang Kon to unify the country once again but under a new name, Goryeo.
WANG KON DECLARED HIMSELF KING & FOR HIS CONTRIBUTION TO CREATING THE NEW STATE OF GORYEO HE WAS GIVEN THE POSTHUMOUS TITLE OF KING TAEJO OR 'GREAT FOUNDER.'
A UNIFIED KOREA
Wang Kon was eager to rekindle the former glories of the Goguryeo ( Koguryo ) state, which had thrived during the Three Kingdoms period (37 BCE – 668 CE), and perhaps for this reason selected the northern city of Songdo (Modern Kaesong) as his new capital. Wang Kon declared himself king and for his contribution to creating the new state he was given the posthumous title of King Taejo or 'Great Founder.' However, Taejo's kingdom was far from secure and the Khitan (Qidan) tribes in the north proved stubbornly resistant to Goryeo's expansionist policies of the late 10th and early 11th century CE.Indeed, the Khitan counter-attacked twice and briefly took Songdo. A third battle in 1033 CE finally saw Goryeo victorious, and a defensive wall was built stretching right across the northern Korea border. This wall became especially useful when the Jin dynasty overran the old Khitan territories in the first quarter of the 12th century CE.
GOVERNMENT & CLASS SYSTEM
The Goryeo system of government was much like previous Korean kingdoms with a centralised government presided over by a monarch who might consult a small council of senior administrators. The civil administration was dominated by an expanded but still exclusive aristocracy ruling over a largely peasant populace with some skilled artisans producing manufactured goods such as ceramics, weapons, and art objects. Intermediary between these two levels were local magistrates (often large estate owners with their own private army) whose authority could be all-powerful in the districts where the centralised government was absent (perhaps 60% of districts remained semi-independent).
Map of the Goryeo Empire (11th century CE)
At the bottom of the social ladder were slaves (prisoners of war, debtors, and criminals) who worked on the estates of the landed gentry or for the government on building projects such as fortifications. There was very little social mobility as any positions of significance and even entrance exams to those positions were strictly limited to those of a particular status decided by one's birth. Entrance to the state schools system (centralised in 992 CE) was also limited to those of a certain social rank.
In Goryeo, the female line was often as important as the male line, which meant that women were treated more favourably than in contemporary cultures such as China. Sometimes a husband moved into his wife's family home, women could divorce and keep custody of their children, and they could also inherit equally with their male siblings.
One significant change from previous regimes was that Goryeo made slavery hereditary with a reform in 1037 CE; any child was to inherit the status of the mother. Many landowners took it upon themselves to expand the scope of this edict and classify as slaves any child born to a slave father too. This greatly increased the number of slaves so that they eventually rose to around 30% of the total population.
RELATIONS WITH CHINA
Bronze Korean Coin, Goryeo Dynasty
Cultural ties were also strong with Chinese literature being very popular, and the state administration modelled on the Chinese approach with a civil service examination introduced in 958 CE and Confucian principles followed. The state religionwas Buddhism, which had been introduced from China centuries before and which continued to be endorsed by the king with many temples and monasteries being built. The Buddhist temple -monasteries, with their landed estates, royal patronage, and exemption from tax, became wealthy and the whole religious apparatus rivalled that of the state itself. Many such monasteries even had their own armed forces recruited from warrior-monks and the general populace. Buddhism was practised not only by the elite families, which often sent a son to study at a monastery and become a monk, but also by the lower classes too.
KOREA HAD LONG USED CHINESE CURRENCY, BUT GORYEO BEGAN TO MINT ITS OWN COINAGE FROM 996 CE.
One more example of the cultural ties with China is coinage. Korea had long used Chinese currency but began to mint its own coinage from 996 CE. These coins imitated those of the earlier Chinese Tang dynasty (618 – 907 CE) and were made of iron and copper. Even the 'heavy coin of the Qianyuan period' inscription was translated from the Chinese Qianyuan zhongbao ) to the Korean Konwonchungbo. The Goryeo mint did add an identifying mark such as 'Eastern kingdom' ( Tongkuk ) on the reverse side of their coins. As with Chinese coins, the Korean coins had a square central hole. An alternative to coins was the unbyong (aka hwalgu ) silver vases which were made from 1101 CE. The vases took the shape of the Goryeo empire and were marked as legitimate currency by having the official state seal engraved on them.
PAPER, PRINTING & PAINTINGS
Buddhism was directly responsible for the development of printing for it was to spread Buddhist literature that woodblock printing improved and then movable metal type was invented in 1234 CE. Improved quality ink and hanji paper made from mulberry trees accompanied these developments, the latter gaining fame as the finest paper in the world. The period also saw an interest in documenting the history of the country with the famous Samguk sagi ('History of the Three Kingdoms') written in 1145 CE by Kim Pu-sik. Drawing extensively on earlier sources now lost, it is the single most important historical text on ancient Korea.
Buddhist Illuminated Manuscript, Goryeo Period
Another Buddhist contribution to the arts is illuminated manuscripts. These sagyong are usually of texts from the sutras (sermons) attributed to Buddha and formed scrolls and folded books. They were written by monk-scribes on indigo hanji paper using bright dyes and sometimes even silver and gold. Buddhist monks also painted frescoes and silk wall hangings to decorate temples with bodhisattvas and water-flowers being the most popular subjects. Non-religious paintings of this period have not survived so well but were popular at the time, especially the specialised art form of fan-painting. It is known that painting was not merely done by professional artists but also as a hobby by those with the leisure time and means to pursue it.
GORYEO SCULPTURE
Goryeo's sculptors used a variety of mediums including marble, stone, terracotta, and metal. Figures of Buddha as Maitreya (the coming Buddha) were popular and some are massive such as the 17.4 metre (57 ft.) high one at Paju and the 18.4 metre (59.3 ft.) tall figure at the Kwanchok temple in Nonsan which were both carved out of natural boulders in the 11th century CE.Many figures wear unique tall hats and this may represent a link with shamanism, long practised in ancient Korea. Standing figures of soldiers or officials were commonly placed in pairs outside tombs, as per the China model. In the second half of the period, sculptures are mostly small-scale and made with gilt-bronze.
Another area of metalwork was the production of bells for Buddhist temples. Smaller than the giant bells made by the earlier Unified Silla kingdom, Goryeo bells can still be up to 1.7 metres tall and were cast in bronze and decorated with dragons and heavenly figures amongst others. One unique feature is the lotus medallion cast at the point where the bell was struck. Bells must not have been too popular with the local populace as they were often compelled by monasteries and temples to 'donate' bronze goods so that they could be melted down and recast. Handbells, temple gongs, incense burners, and vases were also cast in bronze and sometimes embellished with very fine silver and gold inlay.
Maebyeong Celadon Vase, Goryeo Dynasty
GORYEO CERAMICS
Goryeo potters produced unglazed stoneware and white porcelain, but their most celebrated creation is celadon ware. The latter, also known as greenware because of its pale green colour, has a smooth glaze and pieces typically have fine inlaid designs ( sanggam ), especially Buddhist motifs such as the lotus flower, cranes, and clouds. Celadons were first introduced into Korea from China during the 9th century CE, but Korean potters became so skilled at their manufacture that their wares were exported back to China and, even today, Korean celadons are amongst the most prized ceramics in the world. All manner of items were made from incense burners to ink stands to roof tiles, but the most quintessential shape is the tall elegant jar with bulbous neck known as a maebyeong.
GORYEO ARCHITECTURE
Muryangsujeon, Buseoksa, Korea
The best-preserved tomb from the Goryeo period, located near Kaesong, is that of king Kongmin (r. 1330-1374 CE) and his Mongolian wife Noguk. The two mounds of the tomb have stone balustrades with statues of tigers and sheep, which represent yin and yang. Within the mound are two stone chambers decorated with wall-paintings and constellations on the ceilings.11th and 12th century CE tombs are also to be found at Kaesong and are similarly decorated, the animal zodiac occurring in several as it does in Kongmin's tomb. Many Goryeo tombs contained slate coffins which were decorated with relief carvings of the four animals of the cardinal directions.
MONGOL INVASIONS
The years of relative peace in the 12th and 13th centuries CE allowed for a flourishing of the arts, but it also resulted in a steadily increasing decadence among the ruling elite, corruption, and social unrest. A significant rebellion led by the king's father-in-law Yi Chagyom in 1126 CE and another by the monk Myochong in 1135 CE were quashed, but matters came to a head in the reign of king Uijong (1147-1170 CE) who was much criticised for building lavish palaces and water parks. There were, too, conflicts between the various sects of Buddhism and claims the king favoured the Kyo sect over the others. The military, with not much else to do and no status in higher society, staged a coup in 1170 CE. Uijong was replaced by his brother Myeongjong, but he only remained as a puppet sovereign. Decades of turbulent in-fighting between all levels of Goryeo society ensued with more coups, assassinations, and slave rebellions.
A new threat to Korea emerged in the early 13th century CE when the Mongol tribes, united by Genghis Khan (Chinggis), swept through China and conquered Beijing in 1215 CE. The crisis came in 1231 CE when the Mongols, now led by Ogedei Khan, invaded Korea, forcing Goryeo to move its capital to Kanghwa Island the following year. While the ruling elite was safely ensconced on their island, the rest of the Goryeo population had to face six Mongol invasions over the next three decades. By 1258 CE the people had had enough, and the military ruler was assassinated, the king reinstalled with full powers, and peace made with the Mongols. The price for the latter was an obligation to provide ships and materials for the (failed) Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 CE. Korea then became increasingly influenced by Mongol culture, princes were required to live as hostages in Beijing, and several kings married Mongolian princesses. Korea would have to wait another century to re-establish its independence when, in 1392 CE, the general Yi Song-gye formed the new state of Joseon.
This article was made possible with generous support from the British Korean Society.
Silla › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
Silla was the kingdom which ruled south-eastern Korea during the Three Kingdoms period from the 1st century BCE to 7th century CE. The Silla were in constant rivalry with their neighbours the Baekje ( Paekche ) and Goguryeo ( Koguryo ) kingdoms, as well as the contemporary Gaya ( Kaya ) confederation. With its capital at Kumsong ( Gyeongju ), centralised government, and highly hierarchical system of social ranks, the prosperity of the Silla kingdom is best seen in the magnificent gold crowns which are among the most prized art objects produced in ancient South-East Asia. An alliance with the Tang Dynasty of China permitted Silla to eventually conquer the whole of the Korean peninsula in 668 CE, which it then ruled for the next three centuries as the Unified Silla Kingdom.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
The traditional founding date of the Silla kingdom (often Ko-Silla - 'Old Silla' - to distinguish it from the later unified period) was, according to the 12th-century CE Samguk sagi ('Historical Records of the Three States'), 57 BCE, but this is unlikely to be accurate and modern historians prefer a later date when describing the Silla as a single political entity. The kingdom first developed when Chinhan tribes in south-eastern Korea formed a confederacy. The traditional founder figure is Hyeokgeose (aka Pak Hyokkose, r. 57 BCE – 4 CE) who, once he was born from a magical scarlet egg, founded his fortified capital at Saro, later to become known as Kumsong (modern Gyeongju/Kyongju).
The first leaders carried the title chachaung, meaning shaman or priest, suggesting they were selected because of their role as community shamans. The dominant clans in this early period were the Pak, Sok, and Kim. Nulchi (r. 417-458 CE) established a father-to-son inheritance of the crown, replacing the previous rotation system between the clans. During the reign of king Soji (458-500 CE) post stations were established to better link the various fortified cities of the group. The capital, Saro, gave the kingdom its first name (also known as Sorabol meaning 'Eastern Land') which was changed to Silla during the reign of king Beopheung (aka Pophung, r. 514-540 CE) when a greater degree of centralisation was achieved.
SILLA BATTLED CONSTANTLY OVER THE CENTURIES WITH THE NEIGHBOURING KINGDOMS OF GOGURYEO, BAEKJE, & THE GAYA CONFEDERATION.
Silla battled constantly over the centuries with the neighbouring kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje, and the Gaya confederation, with all four vying for greater control of the Korean peninsula and constantly switching allies. The Silla kingdom did have the advantage of protection from local mountains which isolated it to some degree from the other Korean states. Silla formed an alliance with Goguryeo to rebuff a Japanese-Baekje army in 400 CE, but when Goguryeo became more territorially ambitious, Baekje and Silla formed a long-lasting partnership between 433 and 553 CE.
Silla prospered in the reign of Chijung (500-514 CE) with greater agricultural yields coming from the introduction of oxen-drawn ploughs and irrigation systems. The kingdom also benefitted from natural resources such as iron and gold. Silla-manufactured goods included silks, leather products, furniture, ceramics, and metal tools and weapons, all of which were supervised by dedicated government departments.
Relations with Baekje turned sour when Silla occupied parts of the lower Han river valley. In 554 CE, at the battle of Kwansan-song (modern Okchon), Silla defeated a Baekje army and killed their king Song. This move gave Silla access to the western coast and the Yellow Sea, providing the possibility to forge greater links with China.
Three Kingdoms of Korea
More success came in the south with the Silla attack on the Gaya capital Pon Kaya, which fell in 532 CE. By 562 CE Tae Kaya also fell and the Gaya confederation was wholly absorbed into the Silla kingdom. This still left two dangerous opponents in Goguryeo and Baekje, and they combined effectively to conquer Taeya-song (modern Hapchon), also in 562 CE. Silla would require outside help to realise its ambition of controlling all of the peninsula.
Fortunately for Silla, China was now ruled by the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) who saw an opportunity to play these troublesome southern kingdoms against each other for their own benefit. Selecting Silla as their ally, things did not at first go well when a joint Silla-Tang army was defeated by a Goguryeo army led by the celebrated general Yang Manchun in 644 CE.Three more times Tang armies were defeated over the following decade. Then, in a few action-packed years, the whole political map changed dramatically.
A massive joint Tang and Silla army and naval force was formed for one big and decisive push. The Silla army of 50,000 was led by the general Kim Yushin whilst Tang emperor Gaozong sent a navy of 130,000 men, which sailed up the Paek (modern Kum) River. With such an overwhelming force Baekje was caught in a pincer movement, the capital Sabi crushed and the kingdom wholly swept aside in 660 CE. Silla then easily quashed a brief rebel revival in 663 CE; one kingdom down, one to go.
Once again the Tangs were instrumental in Korean affairs when Pyongyang, the Goguryeo capital, was attacked by a Chinese army in 661 and again in 667 CE. The city, after a one-year siege, eventually fell, and by 668 CE the Goguryeo kingdom was made a Chinese province as was now the old Baekje territory. Silla had no intention of allowing China to keep these gains, though, and while the Tangs were preoccupied with a rising Tibet, the Silla armies battled the Chinese forces remaining in Korea. Battles at Maesosong (675 CE) and Kibolpo (676 CE) brought victory, and finally, Silla was the sole master of Korea.
GOVERNMENT & SOCIAL CLASSES
As in the other states of the period, below the royal court a central government controlled the kingdom with officials appointed to oversee the six provinces ( pu ). The Silla kings may have had less power than their counterparts in other kingdoms, though, as they shared government with a small council of aristocrats, the hwabaek, which decided on even the most important issues of state such as declarations of war.
Korean Royal Wedding Re-enactment
The Silla kingdom was unusual in that amongst the long line of male sovereigns two Queens ruled – Seondeok (r. 632-647 CE) and Chindok (r. 647-654 CE). The former gained the throne because her father, king Chinpyong (r. 579-632 CE) had no male heir. Her reign was distinguished by the increased integration of Buddhism as the state religion. Chindok followed in her cousin's footsteps and helped Silla dominate the Korean peninsula. There would be a third queen – Chinsong (r. 887-898 CE), who ruled in the Unified Silla Period.
The majority of the king or queen's subjects were farmers who worked their own land but who were also required to provide labour for government projects such as the construction of fortifications and, in time of war, to fight in the Silla army. An aristocracy dominated administrative and religious positions with their wealth coming from trade and landed estates worked by slaves (largely drawn from prisoners of war and criminals). Aristocratic youths were trained in the Hwarang or 'Flower Boys' system, which, despite its Buddhist teachings, emphasised martial prowess and heroism.
In 520 CE, king Beophung introduced the bone rank system ( Golpum or Kolpum ). This was a classification of social ranks based on birth, which permitted holders of a certain status to apply for specific levels of jobs within the government administration and determined how much tax they would pay. There were originally three levels: 'sacred bone' ( seonggol ), 'true bone' ( jingol ), and 'head rank' ( tupum ). The latter was the largest and further divided into six levels. The bone rank system was all-pervasive and even dictated such seemingly trivial matters as what types of clothes one could wear, the size of one's house, and the means of transport one was permitted to use. The system was extremely rigid with next to no movement possible between levels, a fact which may have accounted for the social stagnation of the Silla kingdom which eventually contributed to its downfall.
Silla Ceramic Warrior
RELATIONS WITH CHINA
In the 4th century CE, Silla maintained diplomatic relations with China, paying regular tribute to the regional powerhouse. From the 6th century CE Silla rulers adopted the Chinese title wang (king) – which replaced the maripkan or 'elevation' title of previous Silla kings, the Chinese writing system, Confucianism during the Han period, and Buddhism, which became the official state religion in 535 CE, even if traditional shamanistic practices continued too. When Taoism became more popular during the Tang period, so too it became more widespread in the Silla kingdom.
The two states were long-time trading partners with China exporting silk, tea, books, and silver goods while Silla sent in return gold, horses, ginseng, hides, ornamental manufactured goods such as tables, and slaves. The reigns of Queen Sondok and king Taejong Muyol in the mid-7th century CE saw an even closer relationship with Tang China with Tang court customs followed at Kumsong, students sent to China for study, and most significantly of all, massive military aid being sent to help Silla quash their rival kingdoms.
SILLA ART
The most celebrated works of Silla craftsmen are, undoubtedly, the gold and gilt-bronze crowns excavated from several royal tombs, which justify the capital being named Kumsong or 'city of gold'. Made of sheet-gold and decorated with granulation and crescent-shaped pendants of jade ( magatama ), they have tall upright antlers and trees, which indicate a link with shamanism.There are not only crowns, though, but jewellery, belts, shoes, girdles, and cups made of thin sheet-gold, intricately carved, and embellished with gold wiring, granulation, long pendants, and pieces of jade.
Silla Gold Earrings
Stone and gilt-bronze sculptures were produced, especially of the Buddha, bodhisattvas, and the future Buddha, Maitreya. A gilt-bronze statue of the latter type from c. 600 CE is one of the outstanding pieces of ancient Korean sculpture. The statue presents a contemplative figure with a delicately poised hand, crossed leg and flowing robe; it is currently on display in the National Museum of Korea, Seoul.
Silla pottery of the Three Kingdoms period was mostly grey stoneware with incised, applied, and pierced decoration. Two forms predominate: the long-necked jar ( changgyong ho ) and round, lidded cup with a wide foot base known as kobae (but used for food, not liquids). Other shapes include horned cups, cups with wheels attached, one-handled cups, large bulbous jars, lamps, and bell cups which have small pieces of clay inside a hollow lower section so that they rattle when lifted. Pottery stands ( kurut pachim ), used to support large bowls, were also made which have intricate pierced designs. Perhaps the most impressive pottery objects are the ewers in the form of armoured horse-riders.
Gilt-bronze Silla Maitreya
SILLA ARCHITECTURE
Typical Silla tombs of the Three Kingdoms period are composed of a wooden chamber set in an earth pit which was then covered with a large pile of stones and a mound of earth. To make the tomb waterproof, layers of clay were applied between the stones. Many tombs contain multiple burials, sometimes as many as ten individuals. The lack of an entrance has meant that many more Silla tombs have survived intact in respect to the other two kingdoms and so provided treasures from golden crowns to jade jewellery. The largest such tomb, actually composed of two mounds and containing a king and queen, is the Hwangnam Taechong tomb. Dating to the 5-7th century CE, the tomb measures 80 x 120 m, and its mounds are 22 and 23 m high.
Notable surviving structures at Gyeongju include the mid-7th century CE Cheomseongdae observatory. Nine metres tall, it acted like a sundial but also has a south-facing window which captures the sun's rays on the interior floor on each equinox. It is the oldest surviving observatory in East Asia.
This article was made possible with generous support from the British Korean Society.
LICENSE:
Article based on information obtained from these sources:with permission from the Website Ancient History Encyclopedia
Content is available under License Creative Commons: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported. CC-BY-NC-SA License