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Adad Nirari I › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Adad Nirari I (reigned 1307-1275 BCE) was the king of the Assyrian Empire who initiated the first major expansion of the Assyrian kingdom from the city of Ashur throughout the region of Mesopotamia. He also instituted what would become standard Assyrian procedure: relocating large segments of the population in conquered regions. Adad Nirari I ruled during the period known to modern-day scholars as the Middle Empire and expanded the borders significantly. He is best known as the king who conquered the Mitanni and established the Assyrian Empire as a national entity equal to the other great powers in the region.
REIGN & MILITARY CAMPAIGNS
The kingdom of Mitanni had risen from the land of the Hurrians in eastern Anatolia and was powerful enough to suppress Assyrian hopes of autonomy. When the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I (1344-1322 BCE) broke Mitanni's power, the Assyrians saw an opportunity to launch their own initiatives and tried to take it. They were blocked, however, by Suppiluliuma I's tactic of placing Hittite rulers on the Mitanni throne and holding the region firmly under Hittite control. The Assyrian king Ashur-Uballit I (1353-1318 BCE) defeated the Hittites and expanded the Assyrian kingdom outward from their capital of the city of Ashur, but the next two kings did nothing to capitalize on these successes and the Hittites took back the land. Adad Nirari I succeeded his father, Arik-Den-Ili, who had maintained the Assyrian kingdom but had done nothing to expand or develop it. Adad Nirari I showed himself an ambitious ruler from the beginning of his reign by revitalizing the military and launching campaigns that would lay the foundation for the future grandeur of the Assyrian state. Assyria was not even considered a serious political entity by the other nations in the region before Adad Nirari I, since Ashur had for so long been subject to the rule of the super-power Mitanni and then subject to domination by the Hittites.
ADAD NIRARI I INITIATED WHAT WOULD BECOME STANDARD PROCEDURE FOR THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE: THE DEPORTATION OF LARGE SEGMENTS OF THE POPULATION.
Adad Nirari I campaigned widely at the head of his army and wanted to make sure that future generations knew of his triumphs. He is the first Assyrian king about whom anything is known with certainty because of his habit of making inscriptions detailing his military victories and accomplishments. His memorial stele reads, in part:
Adad Nirari, illustrious prince, honored of the gods, lord, viceroy of the gods, city-founder, destroyer of the mighty hosts of Kassites, Kuti, Lulumi, Shubari, who destroys all foes north and south, who tramples down their lands from Lubdu and Rapiku to Eluhat, who conquers the whole Kashiaeri region (Luckenbill, 27).
In addition to the peoples and areas he mentions above, he completely conquered the region once held by the Mitanni and brought it securely under Assyrian control by abducting the king, forcing him to swear loyalty, and then releasing him to rule Mitanni as an Assyrian vassal state. He then initiated what would later become standard procedure for the Assyrian Empire: the deportation of large segments of the population. This was not only a punishment inflicted upon a conquered people but a means of adding to the growth and stability of the empire in that those who were re-located were assimilated into pre-existing communities which profited from their labor or area of expertise. If scribes were needed in a certain city then literate people were relocated there while if manual labor was required on building projects in another city, laborers were sent to that location.The relocation of the native population certainly also had the effect of decreasing the likelihood of an uprising, but it seems to have been primarily geared toward the overall improvement of the empire as a whole. Historian Karen Radner comments on this, writing,
The deportees, their labour and their abilities were extremely valuable to the Assyrian state, and their relocation was carefully planned and organised. We must not imagine treks of destitute fugitives who were easy prey for famine and disease: the deportees were meant to travel as comfortably and safely as possible in order to reach their destination in good physical shape. Whenever deportations are depicted in Assyrian imperial art, men, women and children are shown travelling in groups, often riding on vehicles or animals and never in bonds.There is no reason to doubt these depictions as Assyrian narrative art does not otherwise shy away from the graphic display of extreme violence (1).
Following his triumph over Mitanni, Adad Nirari I extended the boundaries of his kingdom south through Babylonia, defeating the Kassite king of Babylon, and demanding tribute from the regions which had been under his control.
Stele of the Assyrian king Adad-Nirari III
THE GREAT KING
Having now conquered the regions that had once dominated Assyria, Adad Nirari I felt he was entitled to the same rights and privileges as the other kings of the region. The great kings of Egypt, of the Hittites, and those formerly of Mitanni, all addressed each other as 'brother' in correspondence and, accordingly, Adad Nirari I saw no reason why he should not now do the same. However, as the historian Trevor Bryce notes,
The mere fact of achieving the status of Great King did not automatically carry with it the right to address one's peers as `brother'. Nor did securing the right to address one great king as brother automatically confer upon the beneficiary the right to address all Great Kings this way. Urhi-Teshub made this abundantly clear, during his relatively brief occupation of the Hittite throne, to the Assyrian King Adad Nirari I (76).
Mitanni had, of course, been under Hittite control and when Adad Nirari I conquered the region, he wanted to ensure peaceful relations with the Hittites to the north and west. He therefore wrote to the Hittite king Urhi-Teshub (also known as Mursilli III), addressing him as 'brother' and inviting himself to visit the Hittite king so that cordial relations between the two of them could now commence (though it has been suggested that Adad Nirari I was actually threatening Urhi-Teshub and the suggested 'visit' meant a military action). Urhi-Teshub responded, writing,
Why do you continue to speak about brotherhood? For what reason should I write you about brotherhood? Do those who are not on good terms customarily write to one another about brotherhood? On what account should I write to you about brotherhood? Were you and I born from one mother? As my grandfather and my father did not write the King of Assyria about brotherhood, you shall not keep writing to me about brotherhood and Great Kingship. It is not my wish (Bryce, 76-77).
This insult did not seem to bother Adad Nirari I who continued to comport himself as a Great King worthy of the respect of his peers until it became apparent to the other rulers in the region that he was, in fact, one of them and deserved the same honors.
Urhi-Teshub was overthrown by Hattusili III who swiftly made every effort to respect the envoys of the Assyrian king and to write asking him for help in handling a problem with the town of Turira on the upper Euphrates (formerly a Mitanni village, now on the border between the lands of the Hittites and those of the Assyrians) which was harassing the people of the Hittite city of Carchemish. There seems to be no record indicating Adad Nirari I sent any aid to Carchemish and the rest of Hattusilli III's letter may explain why. The Hittite king apologizes for the way his predecessor treated Adad Nirari I's envoys and makes mention of their "sad experiences" at the Hittite court. Hattusilli III then rather petulantly complains that Adad Nirari I did not send him gifts at his coronation, which was expected from one great king to another. It could be that Adad Nirari I, now in a secure position of power, no longer felt compelled to seek friendly relations with the kings of the Hittites. He did not need them anymore.
When he had conquered Mitanni, Adad Nirari I took the king Shattuara I back to Ashur in chains, made him swear his allegiance to Assyria, and then released him to rule as an Assyrian vassal. When Shattuara I died, his son Wasashatta mounted a revolt and appealed to the Hittites for aid. The Hittites accepted Wasashatta's gifts (which would have meant they would grant his request for assistance), but at the time were preoccupied with their relationship with Egypt and, presumably for this reason, never sent the support. It is entirely possible that, recognizing Adad Nirari I's strength and tallying up his victories in the region, the Hittites simply thought it more prudent not to prompt an Assyrian action against them and to leave Wasashatta to his fate. Adad Nirari I marched his troops into the former Mitanni kingdom, defeated the forces of Wasashatta at the village of Irrite (later known as Ordi), and then continued through the region sacking and plundering the cities that had supported the rebellion. He brought the royal family back to Ashur as slaves.
BUILDING PROJECTS & LEGACY
Adad Nirari I ruled for 33 years and, in that time, not only campaigned widely with his army but initiated impressive building projects. After his destruction of the cities in the region of Mitanni, he ordered them re-built on a grander scale. He extended and enlarged the walls of his capital city of Ashur, had larger and longer canals dug, and improved irrigation methods in the region. Temples that had fallen in disrepair or had been damaged by military engagements were restored, and roads were built or improved upon (mainly in order to move his army more quickly through the regions he conquered). By relocating certain segments of the population, he was able to maximize the efficiency of communities in manufacturing necessary commodities, which increased their individual wealth and the wealth of the empire through trade.
After his death, his son Shalmaneser I (1274-1245 BCE) assumed the throne and continued his father's policies. Shalmaneser I's son, Tikulti Ninurta I (1244-1208 BCE), would expand on these policies and campaign with his army further than even Adad Nirari I had done. Adad Nirari I's accomplishments provided these later kings with the resources to further expand the empire and, more importantly, to sustain it through the period which has come to be known as the Bronze Age Collapse (c. 1200 BCE). While other civilizations fell apart, the Assyrian Empire remained relatively intact and, with the rise of the great Tiglath Pileser I (1115-1076 BCE), would continue on to become the greatest empire of the ancient Near East.
First Dynasty of Egypt › Antique Origins
Definition and Origins
The kings of the First Dynasty of Egypt (c. 3150 - c. 2890 BCE) all worked toward the same ends: increasing trade, expansion of the kingdom through military campaigns, engaging in building projects (such as monuments, tombs and temples), and securing central rule of the country. They ruled from the city of Thinis, near Abydos, and from Memphis. The first king, according to Manetho's chronology, was Menes who has come to be identified with the pharaoh once thought to be his successor, Narmer. Narmer united the regions of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt under central rule initially at Thinis before then building a palace at Memphis and shifting the seat of government to that city. Historian Margaret Bunson writes:
The 1st Dynasty, begun at Memphis by Menes, was marked by significant cultural achievements. He cemented his claims to the throne [by marriage] and by instituting, or reinforcing, the previous modes of governmental and religious traditions that would become unique aspects of Egypt's heritage. Papyrus, writing, and a calendar were in use, and linear measurements, mathematics, and astronomy were practiced. A census, tax assessments, the reestablishment of boundaries after the yearly Nile inundations, and the development of new astronomical instruments moved the nation to new heights (77).
Narmer's queen, Neithhotep, may have been the first female ruler in Egypt after his death. The kings who followed Narmer all continued his policies. The greatest of these was Den (c. 2990 BCE) who is the first monarch depicted wearing the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, indicating his dominance over the whole region. Den's mother was Merneith who may have ruled as regent when he was young or may have reigned over Egypt as Neithhotep possibly did earlier. Military campaigns were launched against Nubia, Libya, and Sinai during the First Dynasty which resulted in greater wealth and expanded territory for Egypt and those border lands not firmly defended were annexed.
UNDER THE RULE OF THE PHARAOHS, EGYPT GREW FROM A LARGELY AGRARIAN CULTURE TO AN INCREASINGLY URBANIZED STATE.
The kings of the First Dynasty were, for the most part, very effective rulers. Only Anedjib and Semerkhet are recorded has having troubled reigns. Under the rule of the pharaohs, Egypt grew from a largely agrarian culture to an increasingly urbanized state. The Egyptians seem to have been careful, however, to avoid the pitfalls of urbanization which characterized Mesopotamian cities such as over-population and over use of land and water resources.
The following list of First Dynasty kings is based on Manetho's chronology, the Turin King List, and archaeological evidence as given in the scholarly work Ancient Egypt: Foundations of a Civilization by Douglas J. Brewer. The dates of the reigns are approximate. Each pharaoh built upon what had been established by their predecessor and worked to preserve the principle of ma'at ( harmony) in the land. Owing to their unity of vision, and a lack of written records, it is difficult to precisely date their reigns. Exact dating is further complicated by a new model of reading ancient inscriptions (such as the Narmer Palette ) symbolically rather than literally. Whereas, in the early 20th century CE, a piece like the Narmer Palette was read as history, it is now interpreted as representing cultural values of the period. While there is certainly some logic and method to this new approach, it makes precise dating nearly impossible.
Narmer (also known as Menes, c. 3150 BCE) Unified Upper and Lower Egypt and established a central government at Thinis (possibly his home city though he is also associated with Heirakonopolis) which then moved to Abydos and then Memphis. He married the princess Neithhotep of Naqada to solidify his rule and ally himself with Naqada's ruling house. Religious practices were developed and large building projects initiated. Narmer also most likely led military expeditions to put down rebellions in Lower Egypt and to expand the territories into Nubia and Canaan. After his death it is possible that Neithhotep reigned under her own authority. If so, she would be the first female ruler of Egypt and among the first in history, pre-dating early regents such as Sammu-Ramat of Assyria.
Hor-Aha (c. 3100 - 3050 BCE; Greek Name: Athotis) was most likely the son of Narmer and Neithhotep (though he has been associated with Menes/Narmer himself). He continued his father's policies of military campaigns in Nubia but seems to have neglected Canaan. Archaeological evidence from his time indicates he was primarily interested in religious rites and building the type of tomb known as a Mastaba (arabic for 'bench') which was a precursor to the pyramids. The necropolis of Memphis dates to his reign.
Djer (c. 3050 - 3000 BCE; Greek Name: Uenephes), probably the son of Hor-Aha, concerned himself largely with building palaces and military expansion. He extended his rule through military campaigns in Nubia and Canaan and used the resources gained in his building projects. Trade and industry grew under his reign.
Djet (c. 3000 - 2990 BCE; Greek Name: Usaphais) was probably the son of Djer but nothing is known of his reign. He was buried at Abydos. He was succeeded by his wife, the Queen Merneith.
Merneith (c. 2990 BCE) was the wife of Djet and mother of his successor Den. There is no doubt she ruled as regent when Den was still a child but may have ruled on her own and by her own authority. Manetho does not mention her in his chronology but artifacts found in her tomb at Abydos indicate she was queen of Egypt. Her influence seems to have continued into her son's reign so, even if she did not rule in her own right, she certainly exercised power over the throne.
Den
Den (c. 2990 - 2940 BCE; Greek Name: Kenkenes) was the son of Djet and Merenith. He is the first king depicted wearing the crown of both Upper and Lower Egypt. He ruled Egypt for 50 years (though part of that reign could have been under Merneith) and enlarged the country through military conquests in Sinai. Temple complexes and elaborate tombs were built under his reign and trade flourished. The Cult of Apis (also known as Hapi), the intermediary bull-deity between humans and gods, was introduced during his reign. He is considered the greatest king of the First Dynasty.
Anedjib (c. 2940 - 2930 BCE; Greek Name: Miebidos) was possibly Den's son but most likely his son-in-law. His reign was characterized by rebellion and little else is known of him.
Semerkhet (c. 2930 - 2920 BCE; Greek Name: Semempses) was considered a usurper by archaeologists and scholars for many years based upon his alleged desecration of Anedjib's name on various artifacts. This theory has been discredited with the discovery of the Cairo Stone which records his legitimate reign and his tomb. He seems to have had as difficult a time as Anedjib in controlling his kingdom
Qa'a (c. 2920 - 2890 BCE; Greek Name: Beieneches) was the last ruler of the First Dynasty. Very little is known about his reign except that it was very prosperous and lasted between 26 and 34 years. He was a relative of Semerkhet, probably his son. Either he had no children of his own or his sons fought over the throne since, after his death, war broke out for succession between a prince named Sneferka and another named Horus Bird. Their conflict was resolved by another prince known as Hotepsekhemwy - who either defeated them or reconciled them or both - and who then went on to found the Second Dynasty.
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