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Nanshe › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Nanshe (also known as Nanse, Nazi) is the Sumerian goddess of social justice and divination, whose popularity eventually transcended her original boundaries of southern Mesopotamia toward all points throughout the region in the 3rd millennium BCE. She watched over orphans and widows, oversaw fairness, fresh water, birds and fish, fertility, and favored prophets, giving them the ability to interpret dreams accurately. She was also known as the Lady of the Storerooms and, in this capacity, made sure that weights and measures were correct. It was originally in this role, connected to commerce, that her popularity grew.
She was the daughter of Enki, god of wisdom and fresh water, and Ninhursag, the Mother Goddess (though she is also referenced as the daughter of Enlil ). In some myths, she is sister to Nisaba, goddess of writing, and the hero-god Ninurtaand, in others, the sister of Inanna and Ereshkigal. Her consort was Haia, god of storerooms, and her vizier was Hendursag who was in charge of judging people's deeds and transgressions. Her husband/consort was originally Nindara, Hendursag's older brother, the local god of Lagash, known as a great warrior and the 'tax collector of the sea,' though the meaning of the epithet is unclear. However, she is most commonly associated with Haia. Nanshe was especially concerned for refugees fleeing war -torn regions, and these found sanctuary at her Sirara temple in the town of Nina, city of Lagash.
She is depicted on a cylinder seal as a woman dancing above water flanked by two winged Anuna (gods of the earth) with the winged solar disc above her (the Assyrian symbol of Utu-Shamash, god of justice). Enki gave her the responsibility for the waters of the Persian Gulf and all the creatures who dwelt therein, and she is frequently referenced in connection to water. She is also represented by the symbol of the fish and the pelican; the fish connects her with water but also symbolizes life, while the pelican, who, in legend, is said to sacrifice itself to feed its young, symbolized her devotion to humanity.
In all the inscriptions and hymns which mention her, Nanshe is portrayed as kind, compassionate, welcoming, and wise. She is probably best known from the Gudea Cylinders, two terracotta cylinders of the text The Building of Ningirsu's Temple, dated to c. 2125 BCE, in which she interprets the dream of Gudea, governor of Lagash (c. 2144-2124 BCE), and encourages him to build a temple for his god.
NANSHE'S ORIGIN IN MYTH
The in the myth Enki and Ninhursag, the two deities become lovers while staying in the land of Dilmun (a region of fertility and peace near the Persian Gulf). Ninhursag must return to her duties back home, and Enki, left alone, has an affair with their daughter, then her daughter, and then her daughter before he also must leave. This youngest daughter, Uttu, complains of her ill treatment to Ninhursag who advises her to wipe Enki's seed from her body and bury it in the ground. She does so, and beautiful plants spring from the earth.
Gudea Cylinders
When Enki returns to Dilmun with his vizier Isimud, he sees the plants and wants to taste them, eventually eating them all.Ninhursag finds out and curses Enki with the eye of death and then deserts the realm of the gods for a far off sanctuary. Enki falls ill and is near death when Ninhursag returns. She draws him to her and asks where his pain is. Each time he answers, she draws the pain into her own body, transforms it into something good, and gives birth, one by one, to eight deities who will benefit humanity: Abu (god of plants and growth), Nintulla (Lord of Magan, a region associated with copper and diorite), Ninsitu (goddess of healing, consort of Ninazu, the god of healing), Ninkasi (goddess of beer ), Nanshe (goddess of social justice and divination), Azimua (goddess of healing and fertility, wife of Ningishida of the underworld), Ninti (goddess of the rib, she who gives life), and Emshag (Lord of Dilmun and living things). Of these eight, Ninkasi and Nanshe would become the best known and most often venerated.
GODDESS OF JUSTICE
Her name spread through commerce, owing to her concern for justice and fair play. She made sure that weights and measures were correct and no one was cheated in the marketplace. In ancient Mesopotamia, if one wanted a certain amount of grain, it was placed on a scale balanced against a certain amount of weight to determine the price. These weights could be toyed with to reflect a different gauge than they actually were and so cheat a customer in paying more for less. Nanshe was invoked as protection against such practices and also in swearing oaths that one was trading fairly. Once one had sworn, it was in one's best interests to keep that oath because, although Nanshe was a kind goddess, she would not hesitate to vent her wrath on those who displeased her through transgressions. A part of one of her hymns lists those who may expect to suffer at her hands:
People who, walking in transgression, reached out with a high hand
Who transgress the established norms, violate contracts
Who looked with favor on the places of evil
Who substituted a small weight for a large weight
Who substituted a small measure for a large measure
Who, having eaten something not belonging to him, did not say "I have eaten it"
Who, having drunk, did not say "I have drunk it"
Who said, "I would eat that which is forbidden
Who said, "I would drink that which is forbidden.(Kramer, 125)
The same hymn also describes those Nanshe cares for. Nanshe is the goddess who looks after the forgotten, the poor, the lonely, and disenfranchised.
[Nanshe is she] who knows the orphan, who knows the widow
Knows the oppression of man over man, is the orphan's mother
Nanshe, who cares for the widow
Who seeks out justice for the poorest
The queen brings the refugee to her lap
Finds shelter for the weak.(Kramer, 124)
In this capacity, she was linked with Utu- Shamash, the Sumerian/Akkadian god of justice represented by the sun. Just as the sun saw all things on the earth below as he crossed the sky, so too did Utu-Shamash. Nanshe, however, was much more accessible.
WORSHIP OF THE GODDESS
Nanshe was worshiped from the 3rd millennium BCE throughout Mesopotamia's history and into the Christian era. Her symbols of the fish and the pelican, in fact, were appropriated by the early Christians for their god. Nanshe's temple at Lagash was more than just a place of worship. Hymns from the time of Gudea describe her priestesses and priests feeding the poor, caring for the sick, looking after the orphan and widow, and involved in social justice on other levels.
NANSHE'S SYMBOLS OF THE FISH & THE PELICAN WERE APPROPRIATED BY THE EARLY CHRISTIANS FOR THEIR GOD.
On the first day of the new year, a great festival was held at her temple which people from all across the land attended. They would first ritually cleanse themselves and then submit to the Ordeal. The Ordeal was a common practice in ancient Mesopotamia whereby guilt or innocence was established by the gods through the simplest means: the accused was thrown into a river, and if they survived, then they were innocent. Visitors who wished an audience with Nanshe to settle some legal dispute or gain a vision of the future had to submit to the Ordeal before entering the temple complex. It is unclear whether every visitor who came to the festival had to do likewise, but most likely they did not. Those who came asking for a vision of the future or dream interpretation, however, had to be pure in heart for Nanshe to receive them and would certainly have had to prove themselves free of sin. The most famous recipient of Nanshe's benevolence was the governor of Lagash, Gudea, who did not need to submit to the Ordeal to consult her because of his great devotion to the gods and their will.
GUDEA'S DREAM VISION
Gudea is the best-known Mesopotamian ruler even though most people do not know his name. His piety and work in preserving the literary and religious traditions of Sumer, in addition to his efforts in temple building, elevated him to such a high status in his lifetime that he was worshiped during the later Ur III Period (2047-1700 BCE) as a god. Even if one has never heard his name, if one has even a nodding acquaintance with Mesopotamian art, one has seen the statue of the robed man, hands clasped, praying; that is Gudea. While there are many such statues depicting different Sumerian men and women at prayer, Gudea's is the most often featured in modern day publications.
Gudea of Lagash
In one of the most complete and compelling Sumerian texts extant, Gudea recorded a dream in which the god of the city of Lagash, Ningirsu (later known as Ninurta) came to honor him by asking for a temple. The dream vision is given as though the events took place in his waking life and is here given in translation with commentary by the Orientalist Samuel Noah Kramer:
In the dream, Gudea saw a man of tremendous stature with a divine crown on his head, the wings of a lion-headed bird, and a "flood wave" as the lower part of his body; lions crouched to his right and left. This huge man commanded Gudea to build his temple, but he could not grasp the meaning of his words. Day broke - in the dream - and a woman appeared holding a gold stylus and studying a clay tablet on which the starry heaven was depicted. Then a 'hero' appeared holding a tablet of lapis lazuli on which he drew a plan of a house; he also placed bricks in a brick mold which stood before Gudea together with a carrying basket. At the same time a specially bred male donkey was impatiently pawing the ground.Since the meaning of the dream was not clear to him, Gudea decided to consult the goddess Nanshe, who interpreted dreams for the gods. But Nanshe lived in a district of Lagash called Nina, which could best be reached by canal. Gudea therefore journeyed to her by boat, making sure to stop at several important shrines along the way to offer sacrifices and prayers to their deities in order to obtain their support. Finally the boat arrived at the quay of Nina, and Gudea went with lifted head to the court of the temple where he made sacrifices, poured out libations, and offered prayers. He then told her his dream and she interpreted it for him point by point, thus:The man of tremendous stature with a divine crown on his head, the wings of a lion-headed bird, a flood wave as the lower part of his body, and lions crouching to his right and left - that is [my] brother Ningirsu, who commanded [you] to build the temple eninnu. The breaking of day over the horizon - that is Ningishzida, Gudea's personal god, rising like the sun. The woman holding a gold stylus and studying a clay tablet on which the starry heaven was depicted - that is Nisaba (the goddess of writing and the patron deity of the edubba), who directs you to build the house in accordance with the "holy stars". The hero holding a tablet of lapis lazuli - that is the architect god Nindub drawing the temple plan. The carrying basket and brick mold in which "the brick of fate" was placed - these betoken the bricks for the Eninnu temple. The male donkey pawing the ground impatiently - that, of course, is Gudea himself, who is impatient to carry out his task. (138-139)
Gudea woke from his dream and, after prayer and sacrifice thanking Nanshe, reported his dream vision to his people and asked for their support. They responded with great enthusiasm, and the poem detailing the vision ends with the completion of the Temple of Ningirsu at Larsa.
Foundation Pegs, from Ningirsu Temple, Girsu
The Gudea Cylinders present Nanshe as the wise and helpful goddess so many people of Mesopotamia responded to, and hymns and other inscriptions are consistent in this depiction. In the myth Enki and the World Order, to name only one, Nanshe is contrasted with her sister Inanna quite favorably. Even though Inanna was the most popular goddess in Mesopotamia, she is frequently depicted as a spoiled brat throwing a temper tantrum until she gets what she wants, and in Enki and the World Order, she is seen in exactly this way.
After Enki has created the world and assigned a place and function to every living thing, including the gods, Inanna confronts him complaining that everyone else has greater gifts than she does. She mentions Nanshe toward the end of her rant, pointing out the wonderful aspects given to her but denied to Inanna. Enki's response is, "What did I keep from you? What more could we add to you?" before listing all of the very impressive attributes she has already been given. Throughout Inanna's tirade, Nanshe is notably silent, as are the rest of the gods. Inanna does not need for them to judge her because her own angry words of ingratitude, and Enki's gentle response, have done that already.
NANSHE AS COMFORTER AND COMPANION
Unlike Inanna or even Enki, Nanshe has no myths in which she is depicted as petty, selfish, or thoughtless. She is consistently a defender of the disenfranchised, companion to the outcast, the poor, the sick, widows, orphans, and foreigners seeking refuge in a strange land. She is companion to the traveler and stranger and a friend to all in her community. One of her hymns makes clear that her central role was:
To comfort the orphan, to make disappear the widow
To set up a place of destruction for the mighty
To turn over the mighty to the weak
Nanshe searches the heart of the people.(Kramer, 125)
If this were so, one might ask, why was the goddess so popular when it was as obvious in ancient Mesopotamia as it is today that orphans and widows and refugees are not always cared for, quite often are not, and the mighty who care for no one but themselves and their own personal interests are not turned over to the weak nor do they seem to fear any imminent destruction.
The answer for the people of Mesopotamia was that, even though Nanshe meant them only the best, some other god or demon or spirit could have other plans in mind. The best one could do was place one's trust in the goddess, appeal to her in times of need, give thanks and rejoice with her in times of plenty, and simply hope that the power of Nanshe would prevail over the forces of darkness and despair. The most effective way to ensure this outcome, of course, was to work for the values Nanshe embodied, calling on her for protection and guidance, and trying to spread her light in one's daily life.
King David › Who Was
Definition and Origins
According to biblical tradition (and some say myth), David (c. 1035 - 970 BCE) was the second king in the ancient United Kingdom of Israel who helped establish the eternal throne of God. A former shepherd, David was renowned for his passion for God, his touching psalms and musical abilities, his inspiring courage and expertise in warfare, his good looks and illicit relationship with Bathsheba, and his ancestral connections to Jesus of Nazareth in the New Testament. Born around 1000 BCE, David was the eighth son (and youngest) of Jesse, from the tribe of Judah. Like King Saul and King Solomon, David reigned for 40 years in one of the highest and most prosperous periods in Israel's history - called by many, “The Golden Age” of Israel. Although presented just as flawed or sinful as the kings who preceded and followed him, in Judaism and Christianity, King David is presented in various books of the Bible (from where most information originates on him, currently) as a model king of piety, repentance, and submission as well a forerunner to the Messiah—the Jewish "anointed one" and champion.
THE TRADITIONAL STORY OF KING DAVID
In the Hebrew scriptures, 1 Samuel 16 introduces readers to a young man who will capture not only the heart of the nation of Israel, but also the heart of God. The Old Testament Prophet Samuel (c. 1200–1050 BCE) is sent to Jesse of Bethlehem (a common farmer and shepherd) to anoint one of his sons as the new king - while Israel's first king, Saul (c. 1080–1010 BCE), is still living but failing in his duties to follow Samuel's instructions and rebelling against the authority/commandments of God.After Jesse parades nearly all his sons by Samuel, each one rejected as king, he finally brings his youngest - David, who “was glowing with health and had a new appearance and handsome features” (1 Samuel 16:12).
Although David does not look like a king should look, he has the heart of a lion - a courageous spirit - and even more, a deep, unending love for God. Samuel, who has been so depressed over King Saul, finds hope and blessing in the young shepherd from Bethlehem in Judea. After David was anointed, 1 Samuel 16:13 states, “and from that day on the Spirit of the Lord came powerfully upon David.”
DAVID WAS MORE THAN JUST A MUSICIAN; HE HAD THE HEART OF A WARRIOR & A SET OF SHEPHERDING SKILLS ON THE MASTERS' LEVEL.
The news for King Saul, however, is not at all positive. While David receives the blessings of the Holy Spirit (the Counselor and second person of the Trinity), “the Spirit of the Lord had departed from Saul, and an evil spirit from the Lord tormented him” (v. 16:14). Saul began to experience periods of mental and emotional suffering, brought on by either a bipolar disorder or an evil spirit (according to the biblical text). One of his servants remembers that David is an excellent musician and recommends Saul employ him as an armor-bearer (the one who carried a large shield and other weapons for the king) and a musical balm of sorts for his tortuous episodes. 1 Samuel 16:23 states, “Whenever the spirit from God came on Saul, David would take up his lyre and play. Then relief would come to Saul; he would feel better, and the evil spirit would leave him.”
DAVID & GOLIATH
David was more than just a musician; he had the heart of a warrior and a set of shepherding skills on the masters' level, especially when it came to the use of the sling. One day, the Philistines and the Israelites were at war ; however, the two war parties were on either side of a valley, taunting each other. The Philistines, the non-Semitic people of ancient southern Palestine, had a powerful warrior in their midst, though - Goliath, who (according to the Bible) was nearly ten feet (3 m) tall.Not surprisingly, none of the Israelite warriors dared to fight him.
David with the Head of Goliath
When David hears Goliath's vile words against Israel and God, he volunteers to battle him. Rather than insist that an older, more experienced officer (or even himself) go out to defend God and Israel against Goliath, King Saul endorses David's wishes. After some wardrobe changes (eventually donning his normal garb), David selects five river stones for ammunition and sets out to face his giant enemy. Goliath stares down at the small, young man, and chides, “Am I a dog, that you come at me with sticks?” (v. 17:43). David's verbal response is as mocking as it is audacious—
You come against me with sword and spear and javelin, but I come against you in the name of the Lord Almighty, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you have defied. This day the Lord will deliver you into my hands, and I'll strike you down and cut off your head. This very day I will give the carcasses of the Philistine army to the birds and the wild animals, and the whole world will know that there is a God in Israel.(vv. 17:45–46)
As Goliath charges toward David, the young man slings a stone, which hits Goliath square in the forehead, knocking him out.David then stands over the giant, grabs the giant's sword, and kills him. Seeing the youngest of Israel so easily dispatch their strongest warrior sent terror through the entire Philistine army and they fled. It also pleased King Saul who basically adopted him into his family. 1 Samuel 18:2–3 states, “From that day Saul kept David with him and did not let him return home to his family.”
THE ENVY OF SAUL
In consideration of David's frequent success and amazing skills in his service, King Saul promoted David, who continued to amaze his men and all Israel. Unfortunately, Saul had developed an ego problem, so he begins to resent David especially when he hears people singing, “Saul has slain his thousands, and David his tens of thousands” (v. 18:7). In bitter envy, Saul tries to kill David, whom he now sees as the enemy instead of a loyal servant. Thus, the arrangement of a marriage between Saul's daughter Michal and David is more about Saul's desire to ensnare or ultimately assassinate David than a holy union, ironically.
Eventually, David goes to his best friend, Jonathan, who is also King Saul's eldest son, for help. Jonathan tries to downplay David's fears, but when Jonathan goes to his father to reassure him that David is his loyal servant, King Saul lashes out at Jonathan, calling him,
You son of a perverse and rebellious woman! Don't I know that you have sided with the son of Jesse to your own shame and to the shame of the mother who bore you?(v. 20:30)
It is then that Jonathan finally comprehends how insane his father is with hatred for David. Saul has come to hate David more than he loves God—never a good condition to be in, biblically.
David & Saul by Rembrandt
To the end of his life, Saul's son Prince Jonathan becomes David's protector, pleading for that same devotion from David. 1 Samuel 20:16–17 states, “So Jonathan made a covenant with the house of David, saying, 'May the Lord call David's enemies to account.' And Jonathan had David reaffirm his oath out of love for him, because he loved him as he loved himself.”
The rest of 1 Samuel provides the details of an ongoing cat-and-mouse chase between Saul, who is desperately trying to kill David (and his forces) and David, who is desperately trying not to kill Saul, despite the urging of his friends and countrymen.Instead, David shows his noble, compassionate, committed character that God finds so impressive. Despite Saul's wickedness, David does not want to harm Saul, “God's anointed.” Saul, on the other hand, has given in to the darkness of his heart and soul, even going so far as to kill some priests of the Lord.
In fact, David goes out of his way to avoid Saul and/or repays Saul's evil with good. One of the more interesting moments occurs when David sneaks into a cave where Saul is relieving himself and cuts off a corner of Saul's robe to show him that if David wanted to kill him, Saul would already be dead. Once a distance away, David cries out,
See, my father, look at this piece of your robe in my hand! I cut off the corner of your robe but did not kill you.See that there is nothing in my hand to indicate that I am guilty of wrongdoing or rebellion. I have not wronged you, but you are hunting me down to take my life.(v. 24:11)
Once King Saul realized what has just happened, he weeps bitterly, finally self-aware that he has been unrighteous, blood-thirsty, and ungodly, whereas David has properly and mercifully showed himself to be worthy of being Israel's next king. Before they part, Saul asks David to swear that he will not kill off Saul's children, which David easily does.
SAUL'S MADNESS STILL RAGES INSIDE HIM, SADLY, & CONTINUES TO PURSUE DAVID WHO, IN ANOTHER MOMENT OF OPPORTUNITY, SPARES SAUL'S LIFE.
Saul's madness still rages inside him, sadly, and continues to pursue David who, in another moment of opportunity, spares Saul's life. The whole of Israel mourns, though, at the death of Samuel, and Saul, knowing that sorcery and witchcraft is forbidden by the Law, goes to Endor to conjure up Saul. Although Saul begs for help from the spirit of Samuel, the dead prophet only replies, “Why do you consult me, now that the Lord has departed from you and become your enemy?” (v. 28:16).Saul collapses, a broken and self- ruined man who only heaped innocent bloodshed atop his arrogant, disobedient acts.
The book ends with David enjoying more and more success on the battlefield and in his domestic life, but for Saul and his family, the tide will turn and run red at their last battle with the Philistines at Mount Gilboa. In one day, the entire royal line of Saul is lost in battle, with all Saul's sons dying before him, including the noble and beloved Jonathan. Saul is critically wounded, and pleads for a nearby Israelite soldier to kill him, afraid of torture or molestation if he is found alive.
The ending of the book is distressing. 1 Samuel 31:4–6 states,
But his armor-bearer was terrified and would not do it; so, Saul took his own sword and fell on it. When the armor-bearer saw that Saul was dead, he too fell on his sword and died with him. So, Saul and his three sons and his armor-bearer and all his men died together that same day.
Seeing the defeat of their army, the Israelites fled the region, opening up the lands to Philistine occupation and exploitation, which was later supported by the Philistine's use and smithing of iron.
DAVID, KING OF ISRAEL
The book of 2 Samuel begins with David hearing the news that his best friend and God's anointed king have been slaughtered by the Philistines. Stunned, David is also met with news from an Amalekite (a descendant of Esau, son of Isaac the Patriarch) that the man killed Saul, taking his crown and armband for David. Expecting a reward, instead the soldier receives an execution with David asking, “Why weren't you afraid to lift your hand to destroy the Lord's anointed?” (v. 2 Samuel 1:14). If David was unwilling to hurt God's anointed, why would anyone think that he would be alright with King Saul's assassination?
David thereafter offers a memorial to Saul and Jonathan. For Saul, he sings of him being a mighty warrior; for Jonathan, he sings of him being a faithful brother. One might expect David to be jubilant about Saul's death, but David truly never wanted Saul dead. Scholars have long noted that David's hopes for his enemies was for them either to be removed or to repent. In Saul's case, he definitely wished for the latter.
King David
The kingship of David described in 2 Samuel 2 is just as exciting and dramatic as his period running away from King Saul.With Samuel's original blessing, David becomes the first king of Judah, but immediately launches into a seven-year civil war with King Saul's son, Ish-Bosheth, that does not end until Saul's son is assassinated in his bed by two Benjamites, the last tribe of Judah and descendants of Jacob the Patriarch.
Expecting a great reward like the previously mentioned Amalakite, they bring Ish-Bosheth's head to David who immediately executes them for their despicable and criminal activity, saying, “Wicked men have killed an innocent man in his own house and on his own bed” (v. 2 Samuel 4:11). He has the men killed, cuts off their feet and hands, and hangs their bodies in shameful display. Later, he buries Ish-Bosheth's head, properly and respectfully in Abner's tomb (Abner was Saul's cousin and commander-in-chief of his army).
With Ish-Bosheth dead, David is offered the crown by the elders of Israel, and 2 Samuel 5:4 records, “David was thirty years old when he became king, and he reigned forty years.” He then conquers Jerusalem - Zion - to which he soon also brings the ark of the covenant. David has hopes to build God's temple in Jerusalem, but that David's offspring will be the one to “build a house for my Name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever” (v. 7:13).
The next few chapters detail and discuss the tremendous victories for David against the Philistines, the Geshurites, the Gezites, the Jebusites, and the Amalekites. 2 Samuel also shares of his marital problems with Saul's daughter Michal, who “when she saw King David leaping and dancing before the Lord, she despised him in her heart” (v. 6:16). It is therefore not too surprising that King David, one of the most virtuous men in the Bible, forgets his place, his responsibilities to God and to his subjects, and starts a love affair with Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah the Hittite - one of his Mighty Warriors.
DAVID & BATHSHEBA
While relaxing at the palace, King David happens to see beautiful Bathsheba, the daughter of Eliam and future mother of King Solomon (c. 990–931 BCE), bathing upon her roof and the temptation is too tempting for him. 2 Samuel 11:4 records, “Then David sent messengers to get her. She came to him, and he slept with her (now she was purifying herself from her monthly uncleanness). Then she went back home.” Unfortunately for the pair, Bathsheba becomes pregnant with David's child.
The situation is delicate, at best. Although feminists claim that David forced Bathsheba, and traditionalists claim that Bathsheba seduced David, the truth is more one of mutual culpability except, perhaps, that as king and the model for the Law of God, David had a higher obligation to protect and not exploit Bathsheba. The text does not lay the blame on any one person (somewhat like the Fall in Genesis); however, as bad as things are for the adulterous couple, it is only going to get worse.
RATHER THAN THE NOBLE & VIRTUOUS WARRIOR OF THE LORD, NOW DAVID HAS BECOME AS BAD IF NOT WORSE THAN MURDEROUS SAUL.
David conspires to hide his sin and so, calls Uriah home from the battlefield and tries to get him to sleep with his wife. Uriah, however, is too devoted and too lawful to squander his time while his men are dying in battle. His plans foiled to confuse the paternity of the child, David orders General Joab, his nephew through David's sister Zeruiah, to place Uriah in the thick of the most dangerous fighting and then withdraw everyone but him.
Several things happen because of this. First, poor Uriah gets killed. Second, Bathsheba mourns for Uriah - there is nothing said about this being a unified plan. Most likely, it was David's own attempt to protect his reputation. He quickly moves Bathsheba into the palace and marries her before the child is born. Third, any loyalty of Joab to David is gone. Rather than the noble and virtuous warrior of the Lord, now David has become as bad if not worse than murderous Saul. David's plans soon begin to backfire upon him.
THE PROPHET NATHAN
In his desperation, though, King David forgot that God sees and knows everything. So, God sends the Prophet Nathan, the Prophet Samuel's successor, to deliver a “rhetorical” message of treachery, which makes David burn with anger against the rich man who steals the poor man's one little lamb. David steps into the trap the Lord has laid for him and states, “As surely as the Lord lives, the man who did this must die! He must pay for that lamb four times over, because he did such a thing and had no pity” (2 Samuel 12:5).
Nathan immediately pronounces judgment upon David, crying out, “You are the man!” (v. 12:7). Not only was David an adulterer, he also was a murderer and an ungrateful king who abused his position to please his loins and protect his renown.Therefore, Nathan prophesies that David would experience perpetual consequences of warfare within and without his kingdom, and that he would suffer public humiliation because he tried to cover up his horrific sins.
David's response is quite un-Saul-like, though. He humbly replies, “I have sinned against the Lord.” Nathan then informs him that his sins are forgiven, but their child of sin is going to die. David pleads for his son's life, and when the boy becomes ill, David fasts, prays, and deprives himself of sleep, trying to get God to change his mind, but God does not according to the biblical text.
On the seventh day, the son dies, and David's response is amazing. Rather than be bitter or hate God, David got up and “he went into the house of the Lord and worshipped” (v. 12:20). The passage also records that “David comforted his wife Bathsheba, and he went to her and made love to her. She gave birth to a son, and they named him Solomon” (v. 12:24).
King David Writing Psalms
ABSALOM & AMNON
Without his former "golden card" of righteousness, the House of David experiences bad tidings beginning with the rape of David's daughter, Tamar, by her half-brother, Amnon. Tamar comes over to help her brother (Amnon) who pretends to be sick, and when she gets close, he grabs her and molests her. Unlike Shechem, the villain in the book of Genesis (chapter 33:19; 34) who felt a moral obligation to marry Jacob's daughter Diana after he raped her, Amnon despises Tamar even more, which crushes and humiliates her.
Strangely, Tamar's older brother Absalom comforts her and says, “Be quiet now, my sister... Do not take this thing to heart” (2 Samuel 13:20), but he never speaks to Amnon about the event. Amnon probably believed he had gotten away with the rape of his half-sister because his father David was mad but did nothing about the crime.
Two years later, though, Prince Absalom enacts his vengeance. Convincing Amnon to travel with him, he gets his half-brother drunk and then has his men murder Amnon, a prince, in revenge for raping his sister. He flees to Gershur and stays with his mother, Michal's family there, and returns three years later with another plan to steal David's throne. He even manages to enlist the king's counselor, Ahithophel (the grandfather of Bathsheba), and works the Israelite crowd.
As Absalom's conspiracy and its support grows, David flees from the forces of Absalom, not wanting to kill his son. Eventually, though, David's forces clash with Absalom's forces, and as he flees, “Absalom's hair got caught in the tree” (v. 18:9). Left dangling, Joab slays Absalom and buries his body in a deep pit in the wilderness.
As with the death of King Saul, David is devastated by the news, but somewhat confused as to why Absalom was so treacherous and murderous toward David and his men. Hearing that David is mournful beyond consolation, Joab marches into David's house and shames him for humiliating and alienating his men by his great lament for a wicked son. The book concludes with more descriptions of the incessant warfare David was promised by the Prophet Nathan. However, the final two chapters offer a poetical homage to God and to his men.
THE FINAL YEARS
David's initial zeal for God and for ethical integrity paved the way for his early fame and fortune, although being a man of warfare and blood (according to the scriptures), God decided that David was not suitable to be the one to build God's temple (that would be placed in the hands of his son, Solomon). Moreover, David's illicit affair and subsequent devious actions (leading to the assassination of Uriah the Hittite and its cover up) complicated the rest of his reign - along with the rape of Tamar, the murder of Amnon, and the attempted coup of Absalom, among other controversies.
King David & Solomon
By the end of David's life, he had lost touch with Israelite society and eventually lost political control of it, as well. This led to an attempted coup by his son, Adonijah (whose mother was Haggith, David's fifth wife), who proclaimed himself to be king with the assistance of General Joab and Abiathar the Priest; however, the majority of Israel's institutional agents did not support Adonijah's claim. The Hebrew scriptures state that the Prophet Nathan went first to Bathsheba to alert her to Adonijah's usurpation of the throne, who then went to her husband, King David, to break the troubling news to him. Eventually, the Prophet Nathan joined the two, and King David officially made Solomon his heir apparent. David said, “Assuredly Solomon your son shall be king after me, and he shall sit on my throne in my place” (1 Kings 1).
King David died from natural causes around 970 BCE, was buried in Jerusalem, and, as suggested in the Hebrew and Greekscriptures, facilitated the establishment of the kingdom of Israel through his piety and lineage. Before his death, David gave his final admonition to his son, Solomon, saying,
Keep the charge of the Lord your God: to walk in his ways, to keep his statutes, his commandments, his judgments, and his testimonies, as it is written in the Law of Moses, that you may prosper in all that you do and wherever you turn... for you are a wise man.(1 Kings 2)
THE EPIGRAPHICAL & ARCHEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR KING DAVID
As with his successor, King Solomon, little evidence has been uncovered to prove the historical existence of King David;however, recently discovered direct and indirect evidence provides greater substantiation for David's life and kingship (although little to back up the Biblical assertions and specific events during his reign). In 1993 CE, Avraham Biran discovered the Tel Dan Inscription on a broken stele in northern Israel. The inscription commemorates the victory of an Aramean king over its southern neighbors, and specifically references both the “king of Israel,” and the “king of the House of David.” This is perhaps the earliest, direct, historical evidence for the Davidic Dynasty in Israel although the Mesha Stele, discovered by Bedouins in the 1800s CE who lived by the Jordan and Arnon rivers, also mentions "the House of David," written in Moabite around a century after the supposed reign of King David.
As for indirect evidence, under excavations directed by Yosef Garfinkel in 2012 CE, a Canaanite inscription of "Eshba'al Ben Beda," King David's enemy (and King Saul's son who reigned for two years) also known as "Ish-Bosheth" in many biblical translations (2 Samuel 3, 4) was found inside pottery shards from an ancient jug dated to the 10th century BCE. Additionally, survey data compiled by Avi Ofer in 1994 CE that suggest a doubling of 11th-Century BCE Judean population (particularly in Northern Israel), and potential Jebusite fortresses that were discovered in excavations directed by Yigal Shiloh (1978-1985 CE) - both of which are discussed in the Old Testament - lend credence to the notion that David and the Kingdom of Israel were part of the region's historical and cultural existence.
Adapted from God in the Details: A Biblical Survey of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures (Kendall-Hunt, 2017).
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