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The Westcar Papyrus › Antique Origins
Definition and Origins
The ancient Egyptians enjoyed storytelling as one of their favorite pastimes. Inscriptions and images, as well as the number of stories produced, give evidence of a long history of the art of the story in Egypt dealing with subjects ranging from the acts of the gods to great adventures to meditations on the meaning of life and magical events.
One of the most interesting collections of stories, often published under the title Tales of Wonder or King Cheops and the Magicians comes from the Westcar Papyrus. These stories, set in the time of king Khufu of the 4th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE), concern magical and wonderous events which happened in the past, present, and hint at the future.
In the manuscript, each of Khufu's sons speaks in turn, telling their own tale for their father's entertainment, until his son Hardedef claims it would be more interesting to experience a wonder in the present and produces a magician for this purpose.The fifth story then picks up on the conclusion of the fourth tale to tell of the magical birth of the first three kings of the 5th Dynasty. These are some of the most entertaining stories from ancient Egypt and so intricately connected by theme and setting that the scroll is considered by some scholars as more of a novel than a collection of short tales.
HISTORY OF THE SCROLL
The Westcar Papyrus is a scroll dated to the Second Intermediate Period (1782-c.1570 BCE). It takes its name, as most Egyptian papyri do, from the name of the man who first acquired it, Henry Westcar. Westcar purchased the piece c. 1824 CE, under circumstances which are unknown, while traveling in Egypt. Since he never disclosed how or where he came into possession of the scroll, its provenance is lost; no one knows where it was found or in what context it was originally discovered.
THE WESTCAR PAPYRUS IS CONSIDERED ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT PIECES OF EGYPTIAN LITERATUREBECAUSE IT EPITOMIZES THE KINDS OF TALES WHICH WERE MOST POPULAR.
It was either purchased or acquired illegally by the famous Egyptologist Karl Lepsius in c. 1839 CE who was able to read it in part but no real progress was made in understanding what the papyrus contained until it was translated into German by Adolf Erman in 1890 CE. Erman's translation, which calls the stories "fairy tales" set the tone for later translations which fairly consistently mention the magician or "wonder" in their titles.
The scroll originally contained five stories but the first has been lost except for the last lines. It was written in the hieratic scriptof classical Middle Egyptian and the papyrus dates from the Hyksos period (Lichtheim, 215). As there is evidence of a previous text which was erased, the scroll is designated a palimpsest, a work written on manuscript pages which once held another. Since papyrus scrolls were expensive writing material it was common to scrape off an old document and re-use the papyrus for a new work.
THE CONTEXT
In this case, at some point in either the late Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE) or the Second Intermediate Period, a scribe removed an earlier work from the scroll to write down a story set in the Old Kingdom. The context of the work makes dating the piece problematic because although the papyrus itself dates to the Second Intermediate Period the stories themselves would make more sense as having been written in the Middle Kingdom.
The Westcar Papyrus
The Middle Kingdom came after the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) in which the central government was weak following the collapse of the Old Kingdom. Middle Kingdom literature, which is among Egypt's finest, consistently hearkens back to the "good old days" of the Old Kingdom and often uses devices, as in The Prophecies of Neferti, of setting a tale in the period of the Old Kingdom where someone makes a "prophecy" concerning future events. The famous Admonitions of Ipuwer is another Middle Kingdom literary work along these same lines which bemoans the horrible state of existence in an Egypt in which the stability of the Old Kingdom has been lost and chaos reigns in the land.
IT IS POSSIBLE THE WORK WAS WRITTEN DURING THE TRANSITION FROM THE SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD TO THE NEW KINGDOM.
In the Second Intermediate Period, on the other hand, the Egyptian government consisted only of the city of Thebes ruling over a part of the country. The Delta region and part of Lower Egypt was held by the foreign Hyksos and the the southern tier of Upper Egypt was under Nubian control. A work like the Westcar Papyrus fits more neatly with Middle Kingdom literature than Second Intermediate or New Kingdom (c. 1570-1069 BCE) works. Egyptologist William Kelly Simpson claims that the work "appears to belong to Dynasty 12" (13). This would place it, appropriately, squarely in the greatest dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. Egyptologist Verena Lepper also places the piece in the Middle Kingdom but dates it to the 13th Dynasty.
Still, the papyrus is consistently dated to "the Hyksos period", following scholar Miriam Lichtheim's assessment, which places it in the Second Intermediate Period but at which point is unknown. It is possible the work was written during the transition from the Second Intermediate Period to the New Kingdom, when Ahmose I (c. 1570-1544 BCE) was driving the Hyksos from Egypt.This would make sense in that a series of tales surrounding the legendary Khufu and his sons of the Old Kingdom, and ending with a prophecy of great kings to come, would fit with the nationalistic bent of New Kingdom literature.
THE STORIES
Story No. 1
The first story is missing except for the set piece at the end (which also appears in the next two) where Khufu praises the tale by commanding that sacrifices be made to the kings who are featured in them and those who performed the miracles. The conclusion mentions the king Djoser (c. 2670 BCE) and most likely concerned his brilliant architect and polymath vizier Imhotep (c. 2667-2600 BCE).
Pharaoh Khufu
Story No. 2
The second story concerns Nebka, a mysterious ruler allegedly from the 3rd Dynasty, and his stay at a priest's house. The priest's wife has an affair with a youth from Nebka's entourage which is discovered by the priest. He then creates a wax crocodile which he gives to the caretaker to drop into the lake where the youth bathes. When this happens, the crocodile comes to life and drags the young man to the bottom. The priest brings Nebka to the lake to see the wonder, calls the crocodile up, and turns it back into a wax figure. Then he tells Nebka what has happened and the king condemns the youth and the wife. The wax crocodile is turned back into a real one and takes the young man while the adulterous wife is burned to death.
Story No. 3
In the third story, king Sneferu is feeling bored and depressed and his chief priest suggests he take a boat ride with the most beautiful women in his harem. They all go out on the lake and Sneferu is enjoying himself when one of the women loses a green fish-shaped jewel from her hair and stops rowing. She refuses Sneferu's offer to replace it and so he calls to the chief priest, who is also on the boat, to do something. The priest parts the waters of the lake, retrieves the jewel, and then closes the waters again. Sneferu is pleased, the women row on, and the priest is rewarded for a wonder which the writer of Exodus would later borrow for his own work.
Story No. 4
The fourth story breaks the pattern when Khufu's son Hardedef complains that all the stories thus far have been about the past even though miracles can happen in the present. He tells the king about a man who can do great magic - such as reattaching a head once it has been severed - and knows many secret things and Khufu sends him to bring the man to court. Hardedef retrieves the sage, Djedi, and when they enter the palace Khufu commands a prisoner be brought and decapitated but Djedi stops him saying how he cannot perform this magic on a human being because it is against the gods' will. He successfully demonstrates his powers on a goose, a waterfowl, and an ox, however. Djedi is then asked a question about the shrines of Thoth and says it is not in his power to deliver the secrets for they must come from the eldest son of Reddedet, a woman who will give birth to the kings of the next dynasty.
Thoth
Story No. 5
The fifth tale picks up on Djedi's last lines with Reddedet enduring a difficult labor. The god Ra sends Isis, Nephthys, Meskhenet, Heket, and Khnum to help her. They arrive at the house disguised as musicians and dancers and find Reddedet's husband, Rewosre, upset about the labor. He accepts their offer to help and Isis, Nephthys, and Heket deliver the three children. These will be the first three kings of the 5th Dynasty: Userkaf, Sahure, and Kakai. Rewosre is grateful and gives the disguised deities a sack of grain to brew beer with and they leave. Isis then remembers that they have given nothing miraculous to the children or their parents and so the gods create three royal crowns, put them in the sack, and return to the house. They generate a storm as an excuse and ask if they can leave the grain sack so it will not get wet.
The sack is then locked in a room and the gods go on their way. Two weeks later, once Reddedet has recovered, they are preparing a party and her maidservant tells her they have no grain to brew beer with except the sack which Rewosre gave to the musicians. Reddedet says to use it and Rewosre will replace it before they return. When the maidservant goes into the room she hears music and celebration and, frightened, runs and tells Reddedet. Reddedet goes to the room and realizes the sounds are coming from the sack and sees the three royal crowns. She is overjoyed that her sons will be kings but is afraid of Khufu finding out so she has the sack locked away in a chest. A few days later she has a fight with the maidservant who threatens to go tell Khufu the secret but, on her way, she stops to tell her brother what has happened. Her brother becomes enraged that she would threaten the lady of the house in such a way and beats her with a whip. The maidservant runs to the river to get a drink of water and is eaten by a crocodile.
Crocodile Statue from Ancient Egypt
The story, and manuscript, end with the brother going to the house to tell Reddedet what has happened. He finds her upset and asks what is wrong. Reddedet tells him about the maidservant running away to tell Khufu and how she is worried what will happen. The brother tells her not to worry because her secret is safe; his sister was just eaten by a crocodile.
The manuscript seems to break off at this point but Miriam Lichtheim, among other scholars, claims that the scene of the brother comforting Reddedet is the conclusion of the piece. Egyptologist Verena Lepper agrees, noting that there is ample space on the papyrus for a longer conclusion if one had been intended.
SIGNIFICANCE
The Westcar Papyrus is considered one of the most important pieces of Egyptian literature because it epitomizes the kinds of tales which were most popular. There are many examples of didactic tales that teach a lesson which are still very entertaining but the stories of the Westcar Papyrus primarily aim at entertaining first. Egyptologist Rosalie David writes:
Unlike other tales intended to educate and inform the upper and middle classes, the style and language of this text indicate that it would have belonged to Egypt's popular tradition, passed on orally by public storytellers traveling from town to town. (212)
Still, as David further notes, the stories did have "political and religious propagandist aims" in highlighting divine intervention in the births of the first three kings of the 5th Dynasty as well as showing Khufu and his sons as "regular people" engaged in an evening of storytelling.
It may seem strange to a modern reader for the scribe to set the story so far in the distant past; for what purpose could be served by reminding people of the divine right of kings long dead? The prophecy of Djedi regarding the kings, however, and then the story of their birth with the help of the three goddesses, would have impressed upon people the interest the divine had in earthly affairs and the importance of monarchs who were approved of by the gods.
The 5th Dynasty had its own problems, after all, with the costs incurred by the monarchs of the 4th Dynasty in building their immense monuments at Giza, exempting the priests from taxation, and paying the clergy for continuous upkeep and the rituals required to honor the souls of the dead. A later period, facing its own problems, could have taken comfort in the knowledge that earlier people had struggled and prevailed and so, too, would they. Whether the Westcar Papyrus was written at a high or low point in the Middle Kingdom or later in the uncertain time of the Second Intermediate Period, that would have been an important, and comforting, concept to those who made up the original audience.
The Negative Confession › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Negative Confession (also known as The Declaration of Innocence) is a list of 42 sins which the soul of the deceased can honestly say it has never committed when it stands in judgment in the afterlife. The most famous list comes from The Papyrus of Ani, a text of The Egyptian Book of the Dead, prepared for the priest Ani of Thebes (c. 1250 BCE) and included among the grave goods of his tomb. It includes a number of chapters from the Book of the Dead but not all of them. These omissions are not a mistake, nor have sections of the manuscript been lost, but are the result of a common practice of creating a funerary text specifically for a certain person's use in the afterlife. The Negative Confession included in this text follows this same paradigm as it would have been written for Ani, not for anyone else.
Although The Egyptian Book of the Dead is often described as 'the ancient Egyptian Bible ' or a scary 'book of the occult,' it is actually neither; it is a funerary text providing instruction to the soul in the afterlife. The actual translation of the work's title is The Book of Coming Forth by Day. Since the ancient Egyptians believed that the soul was eternal and one's life on earth was only a brief aspect of an eternal journey, it was considered vital that the soul have some kind of guidebook to navigate the next phase of existence.
On earth, it was understood, if one did not know where one was going, one could not arrive at the desired destination. The Egyptians, being eminently practical, believed one would need a guide in the afterlife just as one did on earth. The Egyptian Book of the Dead is such a guide and was provided for anyone who could afford to have one made. The poor had to make do without a text or a rudimentary work but anyone who could afford it would pay for a scribe to create a personalized guidebook.
THE CONFESSION IS SIGNIFICANT FOR MODERN-DAY EGYPTOLOGISTS IN UNDERSTANDING ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CULTURAL VALUES IN THE NEW KINGDOM.
The Negative Confession appears in Spell 125 which is easily the most famous as it includes the accompanying vignette of the weighing of the heart on the scale against the white feather of ma'at. Although the spell does not describe the judgment in the Hall of Two Truths, the illustration is meant to show what the soul could expect once it arrived there and the text provided that soul with what to say and how to behave. The Confession is significant for modern-day Egyptologists in understanding ancient Egyptian cultural values in the New Kingdom (c. 1570-1069 BCE), but at the time it was written, it would have been considered necessary in order for one to pass through judgment before Osiris and the divine tribunal.
The Confession is thought to have developed from an initiation ritual for the priesthood. The priests, it is claimed, would need to recite some kind of formulaic list in order to prove themselves ritually pure and worthy of their vocation. Although some evidence exists to support this claim, the Negative Confession as it stands seems to have developed in the New Kingdom of Egypt, when the cult of Osiris was fully integrated into Egyptian culture, as the way for the deceased to justify themselves as worthy of paradise in the afterlife.
JUDGMENT IN THE AFTERLIFE
Funerary texts had been written in Egypt since the time of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) when the Pyramid Textswere inscribed on tomb walls. The Coffin Texts followed later in the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) and these were developed for The Egyptian Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom. The purpose of these texts was to orient and reassure the soul of the deceased once it awoke in its tomb following the funeral. The soul would be unused to the world outside of the body and would need to be reminded of who it had been, what it had done, and what it should do next.
In most depictions, the soul would be led from the tomb by Anubis to stand in judgment before Osiris, Thoth, and the 42 Judges. Depictions of this process show the souls of the dead standing in a line, administered to by various deities such as Qebhet, Nephthys, Isis, and Serket, while they wait their turn to come before Osiris and his golden scales. When one's turn came, one would stand before the gods and recite the Negative Confession - each one addressed to a specific judge - and then hand over one's heart to be weighed in the balances. The physical heart was always left in the body of the corpse during the embalming and mummification process for this very reason. It was thought that the heart contained one's character, one's personality, and intellect, and would need to be surrendered to the gods in the afterlife for judgment.
Book of the Dead
The heart was placed on the scale in balance against the white feather of truth and, if it was found to be lighter, one went on toward paradise; if it was heavier it was dropped onto the floor where it was eaten by the monster Amut and the soul then ceased to exist. Prior to this final judgment and one's reward or punishment, Osiris, Thoth, and Anubis would confer with the 42 Judges. This would be the point at which allowances might be made. The 42 Judges represented the spiritual aspects of the 42 nomes (districts) of ancient Egypt and it is thought that each of the confessions addressed a certain kind of sin which would have been particularly offensive in a specific nome. If the judges felt that one had been more virtuous than not, it was recommended that the soul be justified and allowed to pass on.
The details of what happened next vary from era to era. In some periods, the soul would have to navigate certain dangers and traps to reach paradise while, in others, one simply walked on to Lily Lake after judgment and, after a final test, was taken across to paradise. Once there, the soul would enjoy an eternity in a world which perfectly reflected one's life on earth.Everything one thought had been lost would be returned, and souls would live in peace with each other and the gods, enjoying all of the best aspects of life for eternity. Before one could reach this paradise, however, the Negative Confession had to be accepted by the gods and this meant one had to be able to sincerely mean what was said.
THE DIFFERENT CONFESSIONS
There is no standard Negative Confession. The confession from The Papyrus of Ani is the best known only because that text is so famous and so often reproduced. As noted, scribes would tailor a text to the individual, and so while there was a standard number of 42 confessions, the sins which are listed varied from text to text. For example, in The Papyrus of Ani confession number 15 is "I am not a man of deceit," while elsewhere it is "I have not commanded to kill," and in another, "I have not been contentious in affairs." An officer in the military would not be able to honestly claim "I have not commanded to kill" nor would a judge or a king, and so that 'sin' would be left off their confession.
THE SOUL WAS PROVIDED WITH A LIST IT COULD SPEAK TRUTHFULLY IN FRONT OF THE GODS INSTEAD OF A STANDARD INVENTORY OF SINS EVERYONE WOULD HAVE TO RECITE.
This was not weighing the confession in the deceased's favor so much as ensuring one did not condemn one's self by speaking falsely. The heart would still be weighed in the balances, after all, and any deceit would be known. The soul was therefore provided with a list it could speak truthfully in front of the gods instead of a standard inventory of sins everyone would have to recite.
Still, there are standard sins in every list such as "I have not stolen," "I have not slandered," "I have not caused pain," and other similar claims. It is also thought that these statements carried unspoken stipulations in many cases. Confession 10 in some texts reads "I have not caused anyone to weep," but this is a very difficult claim to make since one often has no idea how one's actions have affected others. It is therefore thought that the intent of the claim is "I have not intentionally caused anyone to weep." The same could be said for a claim such as "I have not made suffering for anyone" and for the same reason. The point of the confession was to be able to honestly claim innocence of actions which were contrary to the principle of ma'at, and so, no matter what specific sins were included, one needed to be able to say one was innocent of willfully challenging the governing principle of harmony and balance in life.
THE NEGATIVE CONFESSION OF ANI
Ma'at was the central cultural value of ancient Egypt which allowed the universe to function as it did. In making the confession, the soul was stating that it had adhered to this principle and that any failings were unintentional. In the following confession, Ani addresses himself to each of the 42 Judges in the hope that they will recognize his intentions in life, even if he may not always have chosen the right action at the right moment. One was not supposed to consider 'sins of omission' but only 'sins of commission' which were pursued intentionally.
Papyrus of Ani
The following translation is by EA Wallis Budge from his original work on The Egyptian Book of the Dead. Each confession is preceded by a salutation to a specific judge and the region they come from. Some of these regions, however, are not on earth but in the afterlife. Hraf-Haf, for example, who is hailed in number 12, is the divine ferryman in the afterlife. In Ani's case, then, the 42 nomes are not fully represented (some, in fact, are mentioned twice) but the standard number of 42 is still adhered to.Prior to beginning the Confession, the soul would greet Osiris, make an assertion that it knew the names of the 42 Judges, and proclaim its innocence of wrong-doing, ending with the statement "I have not learnt that which is not." This means the person never lost faith or entertained a belief contrary to the truth of ma'at and the will of the gods.
1. Hail, Usekh-nemmt, who comest forth from Anu, I have not committed sin.2. Hail, Hept-khet, who comest forth from Kher-aha, I have not committed robbery with violence.3. Hail, Fenti, who comest forth from Khemenu, I have not stolen.4. Hail, Am-khaibit, who comest forth from Qernet, I have not slain men and women.5. Hail, Neha-her, who comest forth from Rasta, I have not stolen grain.6. Hail, Ruruti, who comest forth from Heaven, I have not purloined offerings.7. Hail, Arfi-em-khet, who comest forth from Suat, I have not stolen the property of God.8. Hail, Neba, who comest and goest, I have not uttered lies.9. Hail, Set-qesu, who comest forth from Hensu, I have not carried away food.10. Hail, Utu-nesert, who comest forth from Het-ka-Ptah, I have not uttered curses.11. Hail, Qerrti, who comest forth from Amentet, I have not committed adultery.12. Hail, Hraf-haf, who comest forth from thy cavern, I have made none to weep.13. Hail, Basti, who comest forth from Bast, I have not eaten the heart.14. Hail, Ta-retiu, who comest forth from the night, I have not attacked any man.15. Hail, Unem-snef, who comest forth from the execution chamber, I am not a man of deceit.16. Hail, Unem-besek, who comest forth from Mabit, I have not stolen cultivated land.17. Hail, Neb- Maat, who comest forth from Maati, I have not been an eavesdropper.18. Hail, Tenemiu, who comest forth from Bast, I have not slandered anyone.19. Hail, Sertiu, who comest forth from Anu, I have not been angry without just cause.20. Hail, Tutu, who comest forth from Ati, I have not debauched the wife of any man.21. Hail, Uamenti, who comest forth from the Khebt chamber, I have not debauched the wives of other men.22. Hail, Maa-antuf, who comest forth from Per-Menu, I have not polluted myself.23. Hail, Her-uru, who comest forth from Nehatu, I have terrorized none.24. Hail, Khemiu, who comest forth from Kaui, I have not transgressed the law.25. Hail, Shet-kheru, who comest forth from Urit, I have not been angry.26. Hail, Nekhenu, who comest forth from Heqat, I have not shut my ears to the words of truth.27. Hail, Kenemti, who comest forth from Kenmet, I have not blasphemed.28. Hail, An-hetep-f, who comest forth from Sau, I am not a man of violence.29. Hail, Sera-kheru, who comest forth from Unaset, I have not been a stirrer up of strife.30. Hail, Neb-heru, who comest forth from Netchfet, I have not acted with undue haste.31. Hail, Sekhriu, who comest forth from Uten, I have not pried into other's matters.32. Hail, Neb-abui, who comest forth from Sauti, I have not multiplied my words in speaking.33. Hail, Nefer-Tem, who comest forth from Het-ka-Ptah, I have wronged none, I have done no evil.34. Hail, Tem-Sepu, who comest forth from Tetu, I have not worked witchcraft against the king.35. Hail, Ari-em-ab-f, who comest forth from Tebu, I have never stopped the flow of water of a neighbor.36. Hail, Ahi, who comest forth from Nu, I have never raised my voice.37. Hail, Uatch-rekhit, who comest forth from Sau, I have not cursed God.38. Hail, Neheb-ka, who comest forth from thy cavern, I have not acted with arrogance.39. Hail, Neheb-nefert, who comest forth from thy cavern, I have not stolen the bread of the gods.40. Hail, Tcheser-tep, who comest forth from the shrine, I have not carried away the khenfu cakes from the spirits of the dead.41. Hail, An-af, who comest forth from Maati, I have not snatched away the bread of the child, nor treated with contempt the god of my city.42. Hail, Hetch-abhu, who comest forth from Ta-she, I have not slain the cattle belonging to the god.
COMMENTARY
As noted, many of these would carry the stipulation of intention - such as "I have never raised my voice" - in that one may have actually raised one's voice but not in unjustified anger. This same could be said for "I have not multiplied my words in speaking" which does not refer to verbosity necessarily but duplicity. Ani is saying he has not tried to obscure his meaning through wordplay. This same consideration should be used with claims like number 14 - "I have not attacked any man" - in that self-defense was justified.
Claims such as 13 and 22 ("I have not eaten the heart" and "I have not polluted myself") refer to ritual purity in that one has not participated in any activity proscribed by the gods. Number 13 could also be intended, however, as claiming one has not hidden one's feelings or pretended to be something one was not. Number 22 is sometimes translated as "I have not polluted myself, I have not lain with a man" just as number 11, dealing with adultery, sometimes adds the same line.
These lines have been cited as a condemnation of homosexuality in ancient Egypt, but such claims ignore the central focus of the Negative Confession on the individual. It might be wrong for Ani to have sexual relations with a man but not for someone else to do the same. Drunkenness was approved of in ancient Egypt, as was premarital sex, but only under certain conditions: one could get as drunk as one wished at a festival or party but not at work, and one could have as much premarital sex as one wanted but not with a person who was already married. This same may have held true for homosexual relationships. Nowhere in Egyptian literature or religious texts is homosexuality condemned.
The Egyptians valued individuality. Their mortuary rituals and vision of the afterlife were predicated on this very concept. Tomb inscriptions, monuments, autobiographies, the Great Pyramid itself, were all expressions of an individual's life and accomplishments. The Negative Confession followed this same model as it was shaped to each person's character, lifestyle, and vocation. It was hoped that everyone who was deserving would be justified in the afterlife and that it would be recognized, whatever their personal failings, that they should be allowed to continue their journey to paradise.
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