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Nihon Shoki › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Nihon Shoki ('Chronicle of Japan ' and also known as the Nihongi ) is an official history of Japan which was written by a committee of court scholars in 720 CE. It is a compilation of myths and legends concerning the Shinto gods and episodes from the reigns of the early emperors. The work begins with the story of the Creation and ends with the reign of Empress Jito in 697 CE. Drawing on older sources from Japan, China, and Korea, many of which are now lost, the text provides an invaluable insight into the mythology, customs, and politics of ancient Japan.
BACKGROUND
The Nihon Shoki was a sequel of sorts to the Kojiki ('Record of Ancient Things'). Compiled in 712 CE by the court scholar Ono Yasumaro, the earlier work also described the mythology of the Shinto gods and the creation of the world. Not necessarily an accurate historical record, the Kojiki was principally commissioned to establish a clear line of descent from the ruling emperors of the 7th and 8th century CE back to the Shinto gods and the supreme sun goddess Amaterasu. The Nihon Shoki was designed to address some of the discrepancies in its predecessor and to reassert the genealogies of some of the clans ( uji ) neglected in the Kojiki, the latter work having greatly favoured the Yamato clan. The Nihon Shoki, therefore, repeats many of the myths of the Kojiki but often from a different view point and with changes in details. Like the earlier work, songs and poems are regularly inserted into the prose. The work, again like the Kojiki, drew on now lost texts (from Japan, China, and the kingdom of Baekje in Korea) and oral accounts making it an invaluable source of life in ancient Japan and its mythology.
THE NIHON SHOKI PRESENTS MULTIPLE VERSIONS OF THE SAME MYTHS & IS CONCERNED WITH PRESENTING A DEFINITIVE HISTORICAL PRESENTATION OF EVENTS.
One significant difference between the two works is that the later book has a much more polished prose and is much closer to contemporary Chinese histories in style. The Nihon Shoki presents multiple versions of the same myths and seems much more concerned with presenting a definitive historical presentation of events, even regularly citing the dates of events down to specific months and days. These differences have led some scholars to consider the Kojiki a work for national consumption while the Nihon Shoki was designed to show Japan's great history to the outside world, in particular in China and Korea, the two advanced cultures the Japanese court most wanted to appear favourably to.
The historian RHP Mason describes the scope and significance of the Nihon Shoki as follows,
As an official history, the Nihon Shoki tends to concentrate on the role of the imperial line and its increasingly bureaucratic servants. Its two major themes, however, are sculpted even more grandly than this, and are of the utmost 'global' significance. They are, firstly, the slow coming together of the country under the hegemony of the Yamato Court; and secondly, the ever closer ties between that court and mainland states in Korea and China…the official record is anything but uneventful, and for the years after AD 550 it is essentially an account of how a few men finally transformed the loosely joined Yamato state into a centralized empire. (Mason, 38)
The Nihon Shoki was originally commissioned by Emperor Temmu (r. 672-686 CE) but finished by his son Prince Toneri in 720 CE, who edited the work of a group of court scholars. The book, written in Chinese, has 30 volumes covering the 'Age of the Gods' and Japan's creation in mythology, the early hero-like and legendary emperors, and then moves on to more historical emperors, ending with the reign of Empress Jito (686-696 CE). The earliest surviving copies of the Nihon Shoki date to the Nara Period (710-794 CE).
EXTRACTS FROM THE NIHON SHOKI
On the creation of the first land:
Izanagai no Mikoto and Izanami ni Mikoto stood on the floating bridge of Heaven, and held counsel together, saying: “Is there not a country beneath?” Thereupon they thrust down the jewel-spear of Heaven, and groping about therewith found the ocean. The brine dripped from the point of the spear coagulated and became an island which received the name of Ono-goro-jima. (Scott Littleton, 44)
On the death of Prince Shotoku :
The princes and the grandees, and, indeed, the entire populace of the realm grieved so greatly the streets were filled with the sounds of their lamentation; the old wept as over the death of a dear child, and the food in their mouths lost its savor, the young as if they had lost a beloved parent. The farmer cultivating his fields let fall his plow, and the woman pounding her rice laid down her pestle. They all said: - “The sun and moon have lost their brightness; Heaven and Earth must surely soon crumble - from this time forth, in whom shall we place our trust?” (Keene, 70)
Prince Shotoku
On the policies of Emperor Temmu:
The Emperor issued an edict to the officials saying: “If any one knows of any means of benefitting the state or of increasing the welfare of the people, let him appear in Court and make a statement in person. If what he says is reasonable, his ideas will be adopted and embodied in regulations.” (Mason, 59)
On the talents of Prince Otsu, son of Temmu :
Imperial Prince Otsu was the third son of Emperor Temmu. His figure was outstanding and his words were clear, and Emperor Tenji loved him. When he was older, he had a gift for studying and especially loved calligraphy. The flourishing of poetry began with Otsu. (Scroll 30, nihonshoki.wikidot.com )
On the northern Emishi tribes:
I hear that the eastern outlanders are by nature fierce and wild, and that their chief interest is violent assault.Their villages lack chiefs, their settlements lack heads. coveting territory, they all rob each other. Further, there are evil deities in the mountains and perverse devils on the plains. They obstruct passage at intersections and block the roads, causing great affliction on people.The fiercest of those eastern outlanders are the Emishi. Men and women live mixed together, nor is there distinction between father and son. In winter they lodge in holes; in summer they dwell in nests. They wear furs and drink blood; eldest and younger brothers are distrustful of each other…they have never since ancient times been subject to the transforming royal influence. (Whitney Hall, 29)
Empress Jito defines rules for the clothing of officials:
The colors of court clothes will be, from the rank Jodai-ichi down to Ko-ni, dark purple, from Jodai-san down to Ko-shi, reddish purple. The eight Jiki ranks will be red, the eight Kon ranks dark green, the eight Mu ranks light green, the eight Tsui ranks dark navy, and the eight Shin ranks light blue. Separately those above the rank of Joko-ni will have one strip of damask silk, and from Jodai-san down to Jikiko-shi two strips of damask silk, and they are approved for various uses. Also, all will wear a belt of fine, thin silk and white pants, regardless of status. (Scroll 30, nihonshoki.wikidot.com )
LEGACY
This article was made possible with generous support from the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation.
The Art of War › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Art of War ( Sunzi bingf a ) is a 5th-century BCE military treatise written by the Chinese strategist Sun-Tzu (aka Sunzi or Sun Wu). Covering all aspects of warfare, it seeks to advise commanders on how to prepare, mobilise, attack, defend, and treat the vanquished. One of the most influential texts in history, it has been used by military strategists for over 2,000 years and admired by leaders from Napoleon to Mao Zedong.
SUN-TZU
Biographical details concerning Sun-Tzu are scarce. He was said to have lived around 500 BCE, been born in the state of Qi but acted as a commander in the southern state of Wu. Traditionally, his famous work, The Art of War, was thought to have been written in the later stages of the Warring States Period (481-221 BCE), but since the discovery of an older version of the text written on bamboo strips in a tomb at Yinqueshan in southern Shandong, the composition date has been put back to the 5th century BCE. Some of the content also places the text in this period while, at the same time, some scholars differ in opinion and point to the sophisticated language and other matters of military development within the text as evidence it was compiled later. The traditional text version was edited by the 3rd-century CE military dictator Cao Cao. English translations of the text are often included in an anthology titled the Seven Military Classics, which also includes works by other authors such as the Six Secret Strategies and Wei Liaozi.
STRUCTURE & THEMES
The Art of War is divided into 13 chapters or pian which cover different aspects of warfare from planning to diplomacy. The work is not shy on the use of deception which runs through many of the suggested stratagems. Still, the book is not a glorification of warfare, and an important point, raised several times in the work, is that actual combat only results from the failure of other strategies to defeat the enemy and is always an undesirable waste of men and resources.
THE ART OF WAR IS OFTEN CITED AS THE GO-TO SOURCE FOR THOSE ENGAGING IN GUERRILLA WARFARE.
As much of the advice relates to deploying troops with imagination and daring based on a good prior knowledge of the terrain and enemy, withdrawals and counter-offensives, and the importance of psychology, The Art of War is often cited as the go-to source for those engaging in guerrilla warfare. For this reason, Sun Tzu's ideas have continued to be relevant to the conduct of war no matter the developments in technology or increase in the destructive power of weapons. Wherever soldiers come face to face with the enemy Sun-Tzu's ideas may be applied.
An important concept in the text and those treatises which followed is qi (or shih ), which is the 'breath' or essence of life in Chinese thought. Its relevance to warfare is that commanders must energise the qi of their own troops while at the same time drain it from the enemy. Thus, the psychology of warfare is recognised as a vital factor in the overall success of campaigns.
The Art of War by Sun-Tzu
The Art of War was not admired by all. Followers of Confucianism took exception to the use of deception which they considered as contrary to gentlemanly conduct. Another critic was Han Fei Tzu, an influential philosopher and advisor to King Cheng of the Ch'in state during the Warring States Period. Fei Tzu thought that the work neglected discipline as an important element in an army's success and was not convinced by the argument that the limitation of war's destructive consequences should always be in the thoughts of a commander.
TEXT SUMMARY
Chapter 1: Initial Estimations
The book opens with the following statement: "Warfare is the greatest affair of state, the basis of life and death, the Way [Tao] to survival or extinction. It must be thoroughly pondered and analysed" (Sawyer, 2007, 157). Next, we are told a commander who seeks victory must consider five principles or areas: Tao thought, yin and yang, terrain, wise and courageous generals, and the laws of warfare and discipline.
Chapter 2: Waging War
The importance of supplies and logistics to an army are expressed. Weapons will dull, food will run out and soldiers tire so that, "No country has ever profited from protracted warfare" ( ibid, 159). If possible, provisions should be acquired from the enemy. Captured soldiers should be treated well and encouraged to join the army of their victors.
"THE HIGHEST REALISATION OF WARFARE IS TO ATTACK THE ENEMY'S PLANS" (THE ART OF WAR)
Chapter 3: Planning Offensives
A commander should limit the destruction inflicted on the enemy: "The highest realisation of warfare is to attack the enemy's plans; next is to attack their alliances; next to attack their army; and the lowest is to attack their fortified cities " ( ibid, 161).Siege warfare is costly and time-consuming and so should be a last resort. Five factors will influence victory: knowing when to fight or retreat, knowing how to deploy both small and large armies, knowing how to motivate all levels of troops, preparation (even for the unexpected), and having a ruler who does not interfere with a talented commander. The importance of knowing one's enemy is stressed.
Chapter 4: Military Disposition
Planning and preparation are again stressed. Commanders must know when to attack and when to defend. They must always measure, estimate, calculate, and weigh the strength of their enemy, then victory will be assured.
Chapter 5: Strategic Military Power
Here Sun-Tzu discusses the necessity of managing one's troops in all situations:
…in battle one engages with the orthodox and gains victory through the unorthodox…One who employs strategic power [ shih ] commands men in battle as if he were rolling logs and stones…Thus the strategic power [ shih ] of one who excels at employing men in warfare is comparable to rolling round boulders down a thousand-fathom mountain. ( ibid, 165)
Chapter 6: Vacuity & Substance
The enemy should be forced to react or be provoked into reaction, always following the initiative of the eventual victor. One should occupy the battlefield first, becoming familiar with it and the dispositions of the enemy. A commander should not make it obvious where he is attacking but probe and find the enemy's weakness, monitoring and assessing their ability to respond to attacks in various places: "Thus the pinnacle of military deployment approaches the formless. If it is formless, then even the deepest spy cannot discern it or the wise make plans against it" ( ibid, 168).
Chapter 7: Military Combat
On the difficulties of moving an army in the field and ensuring troops are kept together and not separated from each other or their supplies:
Thus the army is established by deceit, moves for advantage, and changes through segmenting and reuniting.Thus its speed is like the wind, its slowness like the forest; its invasion and plundering like a fire; unmoving, it is like the mountains. It is as difficult to know as the darkness; in movement it is like thunder. ( ibid, 169)
The army can be made more cohesive by ensuring all are motivated to fight and will receive their rewards. It can also be better managed as a unit on the battlefield by the use of fires, flags, and drums.
Chapter 8: Nine Changes
Sun-Tzu identifies nine action points that a commander should follow, which include using the terrain to one's advantage, not pressing the enemy or attacking their cities in all situations. The commander must always weigh the advantages of gain and the dangers of losses with every action he takes.
Chapter 9: Manoeuvring the Army
A commander should occupy high ground when he can and he should not remain near rivers, gorges, forests or marshlands.Such places are prime locations for ambush. There then follows a list of points on how to spot what the enemy is up to, from troop movements to their level of hunger.
Chariot, Terracotta Army
Chapter 10: Configurations of Terrain
Sun-Tzu identifies the most common forms of terrain: accessible (allowing freedom of troop movement), suspended (where retreat is difficult), stalemated (where movement by both sides brings no particular advantage), constricted (troops must occupy all of the terrain in order to defend it), precipitous (the high ground must be occupied for success), and expansive (where engagement is not desirable for either side). Weaknesses of armies are identified such as militarily poor officers, generals who do not apply discipline, and insubordinate junior officers.
A commander must know his army and its capabilities very well. In addition,
When the general regards his troops as young children, they will advance into the deepest valleys with him.When he regards the troops as his beloved children, they will be willing to die with him. ( ibid, 177)
Chapter 11: Nine Terrains
Another nine types of terrain are identified which will determine a general's actions: dispersive (when feudal lords are on their own ground), light (when a commander enters only a short way into enemy territory), contentious (where either side can gain the advantage), traversable (both sides can easily manoeuvre), focal (terrain bordered by potential allies), heavy (where one can attack deep into enemy territory), entrapping (terrain with difficulties like swamps and ravines), encircled (terrain with a limited access point), and fatal (where a decisive win or loss might occur).
Chapter 12: Incendiary Attacks
Sun-Tzu identifies the different targets for incendiary attacks: men, provisions, supply trains, armouries, and formations. Again, preparation, timing, and weather conditions must all be considered to maximise the effectiveness of the attack.
Chapter 13: Employing Spies
The negative effects of warfare on the local population are considered. The importance of knowing the enemy is repeated, and this can be acquired through the use of spies. There are several types of spies that can be usefully employed: locals, expendable, those with a high position in the enemy government, double agents, and those who return after performing their duty. Spies must be rewarded generously, one should be wary and prepared to be spied upon oneself, and a good commander can use spies to misinform the enemy.
In general, as for the armies you want to strike, the cities you want to attack, and the men you want to assassinate, you must first know the names of the defensive commander, his assistants, staff, door guards, and attendants. You must have our spies search out and learn them all. ( ibid, 186)
LEGACY
The Art of War not only influenced other similar Chinese works on military strategy during the Warring States Period when such manuals became common and officers could recite passages by heart but also later writers and commanders. Medieval Japanese commanders consulted it, Napoleon was said to have employed many principles expounded in the book, and the Chinese leader Mao Zedong was a great fan of the work and cited it as a contributing factor in his victory over Chiang Kai-shek in the civil war of the mid-20th century CE. Ho Chi Minh also employed many of Sun Tzu's principles during the Vietnam War later in the same century. As the most famous military treatise in Asian history, the work continues to be as popular as ever and is often included as essential reading on curriculums worldwide for courses in history and political science.
LICENSE:
Article based on information obtained from these sources:with permission from the Website Ancient History Encyclopedia
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