Kasuga Taisha › Confucianism » Ancient origins
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Kasuga Taisha › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
Kasuga Taisha is an ancient Shinto shrine located in a forest east of Nara, capital of Japan between 710 and 784 CE.Founded in 768 CE, the site has four main shrines in honour of four Shinto- Buddhist deities, one of which is the ancestor god of the important Fujiwara clan. The complex, including its surrounding forest with wild deer, is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
ENSHRINED GODS
The shrine was officially founded in 768 CE, although historians prefer a date of 710 CE. It was established by the powerful Fujiwara clan after, as the legend goes, a deity appeared at the site riding a deer, which also explains why deer are left to roam freely at the temple even today. The site still includes a shrine dedicated to the founding ancestor of the Fujiwara. The shrines are surrounded by a cypress forest in which both hunting and the cutting down of trees have been banned since 841 CE. In the same forest are the Kofukuji and Todaiji Buddhist temples.
The four main kami or Shinto spirits of Kasuga Taisha are Ame no Koyane no mikoto, the founding Fujiwara ancestor, Himegami, Takemikazuchi no mikoto (the deer-riding deity and thunder god), and Futsunushi no mikoto (a warrior god and great swordsman). The latter two were believed to have been sent by the gods when Ninigi came to rule on earth, Japan's first ruler according to Shinto mythology. Kasuga Taisha appeals to the Buddhist faithful because Takemikazuchi is considered the avatar of Fukukensaku Kannon. Similarly, Ame no Koyane is equated with Jizo, Himegami with Juichimen Kannon, and Futsunushi with Yakushi Nyorai. Another link with Buddhism is the site's famous deer as this reminds of the deer park where the Buddha is thought to have given his first sermon.
THE FOUR MAIN SHRINES OF THE COMPLEX GAVE THEIR NAME TO THE KASUGA-ZUKURI ARCHITECTURAL STYLE.
KASUGA ARCHITECTURE
During the Heian period (794-1185 CE) the temple came under the auspices of the Kofuku-ji temple, the Fujiwara clan temple at Nara. The complex was influential in its own right, though, right up to the 19th century CE and grew to include over 175 buildings. There are few original ancient buildings at the site because, as with many other Shinto shrines, structures are regularly rebuilt in the process known as shikinen sengu in order to keep them pristine and free from spiritual impurity. The oldest honden (main hall) shrine today dates to 1863 CE.
The four main shrines of the complex gave their name to the kasuga - zukuri architectural style, which is seen at smaller shrines elsewhere. The style is typified by a honden with a simple rectangular structure and a curved gabled roof decorated with chigi (V-shaped projections) at each roof end and katsuogi (cylinders laid across the roof ridge). The entrance is via steps covered by a simple roof canopy. Wooden parts are painted red and black, while the walls are plastered white and the roofs are made from cypress bark. The four shrines are set in a row and each measures around 2.6 x 1.8 metres (8.5 x 6 ft). The Wakamiya Jinja, founded in 1135 CE, is a secondary shrine and is also in the kasuga - zukuri style.
Kasuga Taisha Shrine, Nara
One of the most impressive structures is the Chumon Gate. Built in 1613 CE, it has a sweeping two-storey central roof and two wings which house secondary shrines. Next to the gate is a cedar tree thought to be over 800 years old and the subject of a picture scroll which dates to 1309 CE. The same tree appears on the stage scenery of every No stage play, too, because that form of theatre was first performed at Kasuga in the 14th century CE.
The shrine's main entrance is the more modest Nanomon or South Gate. Two more gates break the shrine's surrounding kairowall, built in 1613 CE. Other buildings include the heiden (prayer and offering hall) and the red hoko or storehouse. Finally, there is the Treasure Hall and Meoto Daikokusha, both of which contain precious sculptures, weapons, masks, and mirrors, many of which were imperial gifts given during the Heian Period.
Stone Lanterns, Kasuga Shrine
KASUGA'S LANTERNS
The site is particular for its 2,000-plus stone lanterns ( ishidoro ), which line the pathway to the shrines. These lanterns, a traditional way to greet the spirits of the dead, have been donated by worshippers over the centuries. Many of the lanterns are decorated with an image of a deer and are particularly ornate, giving rise to a type of lantern which carries the Kasuga name.Another 1,000 bronze lanterns hang around the shrines and gates at the site. All the lanterns at Kasuga are lit in the spectacular Setsubon and Obon Mantoro ceremonies held each February and August respectively. The site is also particularly picturesque in late spring when its many wisteria bloom in the botanical gardens and the shrine earns its name of kasuga or 'field of wisteria'.
This article was made possible with generous support from the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation.
Confucianism › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The philosopher Confucius (or Kongzi, c. 551 to c. 479 BCE) is the recognized founder of Confucianism, also referred to as the Ru-jia doctrine or School of Literati as it is known by Western scholars. Originally, Confucianism was composed of a set of political and moral doctrines with the teachings of Confucius as its basis. Later on, the teachings of Mencius (Meng Zi) and Xunzi (Xun zi) also became part of Confucianism. The word Confucianism seems to be the creation of European Christians who entered China about 1860 CE and was originally used to label their notion of the non-Christian religions they came across in China.
THE APPROACH & TEACHINGS OF CONFUCIUS
While his neighbours in India were obsessed with metaphysical debates, Confucius was solely focused on everyday concerns.He was indifferent to the big mysteries of existence such as the origin or the universe, god or the afterlife. His famous answers to this type of question were:
We do not yet know how to serve man, how can we know about serving the spirits?We don't know yet about life, how can we know about death?
Humanism is the central feature of Confucianism, which revolves almost entirely around issues related to the family, morals, and the role of the good ruler. It stresses the need for benevolent and frugal rulers, the importance of inner moral harmony and its direct connection with harmony in the physical world. Rulers and teachers, according to this view, are important models for society: a good government should rule by virtue and moral example rather than by punishment or force. Filial piety and ancestor worship, which are old traditional Chinese values, are also part of the key components of Confucian doctrine.
THE ATTENTION OF CONFUCIUS WAS ATTRACTED TOWARDS VERY PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF THIS WORLD RATHER THAN SEEKING CONSOLATION IN OTHERWORLDLY NOTIONS.
Confucius believed in the perfectibility of all men and he was against the idea that some men are born superior to others.During his time it was held that nobility was a quality determined by status and that belonging to a specific social circle made a person morally superior. Confucius challenged this idea by saying that being morally superior had nothing to do with the blood, rather, it was a matter of character and personal development, a revolutionary concept at that time.
THE ORIGINS OF CONFUCIANISM
To ignore the mysteries of life is the price Confucius had to pay to focus his energy on this world. It is often claimed that there is a lack of imagination in Confucianism, that it is a philosophy reluctant to imagine the new, to embrace changes and innovations. The Confucian indifference to the big mysteries, whether cause or effect of the lack of imagination, seems to be the only approach consistent with the time when Confucius developed his thought, a time when there was political struggle, moral chaos, and intellectual conflict, in short, when order was almost non-existent. Confucius thought that going back to the traditional ways was the only path for society to get back on track. He lived during a time when the Zhou dynasty was immersed in serious political conflicts.
The attention of Confucius was attracted towards very practical considerations of this world rather than seeking consolation in otherworldly notions. He decided to seek a solution for the challenges of his time, a way to cure a society which, nearly everyone agreed, was sick. He often mentions some of the sage-emperors of the past: Emperor Yao (a legendary ruler of the 3rd century BCE), his successor Emperor Shun and the Duke of Zhou, who were considered responsible of establishing the foundations of Chinese culture. These were considered by Confucius as inspiring models for a society, far more useful than supernatural beings or other metaphysical ideas.
CONFUCIANISM & THE STATE
The teachings of Confucius have come down to our days through his Analects, a collection of aphorisms, maxims and different anecdotes, probably but not certainly compiled by Confucius' students. It was during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) when Confucianism became the dominant political ideology and the Analects became known by that name. All early versions of this text have been displaced by a version compiled near the end of the Han dynasty. About 175 CE this version was carved on stone tablets and the surviving fragments of those stones were re-edited innumerable times. Despite the fact that it is not entirely certain whether the Analects truly contain the message of Confucius, it is generally accepted that it is the most reliable source of Confucius' view.
Confucius
Confucianism was not always popular during the Han dynasty. In fact, the first Han emperor Liu Bang, who ruled until 195 BCE, did not feel any respect at all for the Confucian school. The famous Chinese historian Sima Qian tells us that whenever Liu Bang identified a Confucian (an easy thing to do because they used to wear a very distinctive pointed hat), " immediately snatches the hat from the visitor's head and pissed in it”. It was later on during the time of Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE) that the Confucian school received the support of the Chinese rulers and gradually became the official state philosophy. Thousands of academies spread the Confucian ideology across the Chinese empire and from here it travelled to most of East Asia.
The support that Confucianism received during the late Han period was the opposite of what had happened earlier on during the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE), when the Emperor Qin Shi Huang ( Shi Huangti, 259-210 BCE) got tired of the critics his government received from Confucian scholars by comparing it with previous dynasties. Qin Shi Huang decided to do something about it, he wrote, "I suggest that the official histories, with the exception of the Memoirs of Qin, be all burnt, and that those who attempt to hide [other works] be forced to bring them to the authorities to be burnt." (Durant, 697).
Quin Shi Huan banned Confucianism along with all other schools, except for the Legalist school or Fa-jia, which was the official government philosophy. Freedom of speech was suppressed, hundreds of Confucian scholars were buried alive and several classic Chinese texts were burnt.
THE ANALECTS
Around 1190 CE, the Analects became part of a collection of four books that until 1905 CE were the subject of the Chinese civil service examinations. It was the Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi) who gave to these texts authoritative status.The other three texts were the Book of Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean.
Confucius by Wu Daozi
As has happened with the teachings of every great mind of antiquity, some ideas of Confucius have been subject to reinterpretation. We can take, for example, one of his statements that men are alike by nature, and they become apart through practice ( Analects, 17:2). This idea on human nature is slightly different from what the later orthodox Confucian school said, that human nature is originally good.
The Analects is not written in systematic way but rather in a poetic way that sometimes can be interpreted in different ways.These are some examples of its passages where Confucius said:
Wealth and honour are what every man desires. But if they have been obtained in violation of moral principles, they must not be kept. Poverty and humble station are what every man dislikes. But if they can be avoided only in violation of moral principles, they must not be avoided. A superior man never abandons humanity even for the lapse of a single meal. In moments of haste, he acts according to it. In times of difficulty or confusion, he acts according to it. ( Analects 4:5)The superior man wants to be slow in word but diligent in action. ( Analects 4:24)I transmit but do not create. I believe in and the love of the ancients. I venture to compare myself to our old Peng.( Analects 7:1)
[Old Peng Wan an official of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) who was known for reciting old stories.This fragment is sometimes cited to point out that Confucius was not creative. However, we read in the Analects2:11 that Confucius “goes over the old so as to find out what is new".]When Tzu kung asked about government, Confucius said: "Sufficient food, sufficient armament, and sufficient confidence of the people.” Tzu kung said, “Forced to give up one of these, which would you abandon first?” Confucius said, “I would abandon the armament.” Tzu kung said, “Forced to give up one of the remaining two, which would you abandon first?” Confucius said, “I would abandon food. There have been deaths from time immemorial, but no state can exist without the confidence of the people.” ( Analects 12:7)If a ruler sets himself right, he will be followed without his command. If he does not set himself right, even his command will not be obeyed. ( Analects 13:6)
LEGACY
The humanistic turn in Chinese philosophy is due to the enormous influence of Confucianism and it is humanism that is the most outstanding feature of Chinese philosophy as a whole. During most of Chinese history, Confucianism was seen as the preserver of traditional Chinese values, the guardian of Chinese civilization as such. After struggling during the Qin dynasty, it emerged as the final and permanent victor during the later Han period and would dominate Chinese thought ever after.
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