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Roman Emperor › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
Roman emperors ruled over the Imperial Roman Empire starting with Augustus from 27 BCE and continuing in the Western Roman Empire until the late 5th century CE and in the Eastern Roman Empire up to the mid-15th century CE. The emperors would take different titles such as Caesar and Imperator but it was always their command of the army which allowed them to keep their seat on one of history's most prestigious and long-lasting thrones.
Prior to the birth of the Roman Empire in the latter part of the first century BCE, there had existed many empires among these were the Assyrian, the Babylonian, the Persian, and the Macedonian. All of these had great leaders such as Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes, and, of course, Alexander the Great. Yet, history tells us these great men were all called kings; the term emperor was never used. In contrast, the Roman Empire was different, for it didn't have a king; it had an emperor, and one must search both the Roman Republic and the Empire, almost one thousand years of history, to discover the reasons for the difference.
FROM THE REPUBLIC TO THE IMPERIAL ERA
Before Rome was an empire, it was a republic with a long history of “democratic” rule. After ousting the Etruscans and their king, the city-state was ruled by a Senate and/or an assembly with elected magistrates - consuls and tribunes, both with a term of office limitations. After conquering the Italian peninsula, Rome gained considerable land through an aggressive military campaign - primarily in North Africa, Spain, Macedonia and Greece, plus various islands throughout the Mediterranean.Unfortunately, the size of the Republic placed considerable strain on its leadership; leaders, good and bad, rose through the political and military ranks to gain power, men such as Sulla, Gaius, Pompey and finally Julius Caesar ; the latter would assume the ominous title of “dictator for life.” As one historian noted, various social, political, and economic forces could no longer be contained by the Republican leadership; change was inevitable. After the assassination of Julius Caesar by members of the Senate on the Ides of March, a battle, both political and military, ensued between the members of the so-called Second Triumvirate ( Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus) with Octavian becoming the eventual victor.
OCTAVIAN WOULD SOON BECOME KNOWN BY THE NAME OF AUGUSTUS - MEANING “SACRED” OR “REVERED”
THE FIRST EMPEROR
As a victorious general, Octavian had often heard the cries of his soldiers - “Imperator” - especially after his defeat of Mark Antony. In the future, this title would automatically be assumed by his successors, regardless of their military experience, upon their ascension to the imperial throne. After two decades of civil war, Octavian, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, returned to Rome a hero. The people celebrated, hoping for the return of the stability that had been the Republic. While initially shying away from honors and power, Octavian, who would soon become known by the name of Augustus (a name meaning “sacred” or “revered”), would increasingly assume authority far beyond the intent of the Senate who had inadvertently granted it. One historian raised the question: was Augustus a “tyrant” who quietly took away Roman liberty, or a generous statesman who shared power with the Senate with the consent of the people of Rome? As an emperor, Augustus would set the stage for all of those who would follow him, from Tiberius, his much-maligned stepson, through the corruption of Caligula and Nero, the cruelty and incompetence of Domitian, and lastly, to the final individual to be called a Roman emperor, Romulus Augustalus (oddly named for one of the mythical founders of the city and the empire's first emperor).
Augustus
ABSOLUTE POWER
While many of the structures that had existed under the old Republic remained, such as the Senate, they existed in name only.In a kingdom, a king had to answer to an assembly ( England had a Parliament; France had the Estates General, for example). Often, these assemblies controlled the finances of the kingdom, but in Rome the emperor could collect and spend as he wished. Emperor Nero, always in need of funds, would cry conspiracy, seize the property of an unsuspecting senator and murder him. After Augustus the Senate would never again have any real authority - only to endorse the wishes of the emperor. While Augustus and his successors would treat them with a modicum of respect (most wanted to avoid a repeat of the Ides of March) the real power was in the hands of the emperor, and to ensure his own safety, he relied on his personal bodyguard – the Praetorian Guard, who, within a few decades, would wield power unforeseen even by the Emperor Augustus.
THE ROMAN SENATE BESTOWED ON AUGUSTUS, & THEREBY HIS SUCCESSORS, CERTAIN POWERS FOR LIFE.
With the consent of the Senate, Augustus slowly assumed the sole leadership of the Empire, and while he disliked titles (even the title of emperor); he took instead the title of “princeps” meaning “first citizen.” Initially, he was a consul (a position other emperors would also hold) and provincial governor (of Gaul, Syria, Egypt and Cyprus, the latter gave him control of a majority of the military); as emperor he would command twenty-six legions. The Senate bestowed on him, and thereby his successors, certain powers for life: imperium maius, extreme authority over the provincial governors; and tribunicia potestasor tribune of the plebs, the authority to call an assembly of the people to enact laws. With his new powers, he could veto the actions of the magistrates (whom he would later appoint), and, in order to control those around him, he controlled the imperial patronage - no one could “run” for office without his consent. He also interfered with the religion of the empire. He rebuilt decaying temples, resurrected old religious ceremonies and assumed the title of Pontifex Maximus or Chief Priest. In short, the emperor's word became law.
However, despite his growing power, he remained popular with the people through his continuous supply of grain, games (he even presided over them) and numerous rebuilding projects. In his The Twelve Caesars, historian Suetonius wrote that the emperor improved the overall appearance of the city. “I found Rome built of sun-dried bricks; I leave her clothed in marble.” Those who followed Augustus would continue to rebuild the city, especially her temples, aqueducts, and arenas. Many Roman citizens believed they were entering a new golden age.
THE IMPERIAL DYNASTIES
Augustus (31 BCE to 14 CE) maintained control of the empire, even in death, and, like a king, named his successor. In his case it was Tiberius. Even the name Augustus would become a title, assumed by all who followed him. But the naming of a successor is one of the few ways an emperor is like a king. In a kingdom, the tradition was for the continuation of a bloodline.The present queen of England is from the House of Windsor and can trace her ancestry through the Hanoverians, Stuarts, Tudors, and even the Plantagenets. In contrast, the last emperor of the Roman Empire wasn't even related to his predecessor let alone Augustus. In fact, only a handful of emperors were related by blood. Titus and Domitian were the sons of Vespasianwhile Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius. Others were adopted - Tiberius, Nero, Nerva, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius. Some obtained the throne through conquest or murder - Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian and Macrinus. One even bought the throne - Didius Julianus. Surprisingly, some emperors never set foot in Rome - Macrinus and Maximinius, while at times, there might be more than one claimant such as in the Year of the Five Emperors.
However an individual obtained the throne, the power that went with the position remained. And, at the forefront of this power was the Praetorian Guard. While the authority of the empire lay in the hands of the emperor, he placed his life in the hands of the Guard. During bleak times, the Praetorian Guard would be the ones to pick and choose (and sometimes overthrow) an emperor. After the death of Caligula at the hands of the Praetorian Guard, they found Claudius cowering behind a curtain and hurried him to the Senate, who reluctantly proclaimed him emperor. When they had finally realized the ineptness and depravity of Elagabalus, they murdered him and his mother and declared Alexander Severus the new emperor.
Caligula
Unfortunately, the life of an emperor would not always be filled attending lavish ceremonies, directing military campaigns and dictating laws. He would often sit on the throne, paranoid, fearful of those closest to him. Of the first twelve emperors - Augustus through to Nerva - four would die naturally (although some question one or two of these), four would be assassinated, two would commit suicide, and two would be murdered by poison or suffocation, as one historian put it, “supreme power brought supreme risk.” It was rare that an emperor would resign or die a natural death as the possibility of being overthrown always existed.
The autocratic power of the emperor would endure despite the destructive reigns of Caligula, Nero, Commodus, and Elagabalus. Luckily for the empire, it would see the strength of such men as Vespasian, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Constantine ; territories would be gained and lost; the empire would expand and contract, but somehow, despite the good and bad, the empire would continue to survive.
THE EMPEROR HELD A SPECIAL PLACE IN THE HEARTS & MINDS OF THE PEOPLE OF ROME, BOTH IN LIFE & IN DEATH.
DEIFICATION
The emperor held a special place in the hearts and minds of the people of Rome, both in life and in death. This adoration for the imperial leader would lead to his eventual deification or apotheosis. However, this type of honor or Imperial Cult was not unique to Rome; it dated back to Alexander the Great - he considered himself not the son of Phillip II but the son of Zeus.Emperor Augustus was treated as a deity during his reign; altars and temples were built to honor him throughout the empire - Pergamum, Lyons, and Athens - but none were built in Rome (at least while he still lived). Although he may have considered himself the son of a god, he never permitted himself to be called a god. Upon his death, the Senate would deify him - the same would happen to many of those who followed him, for example, Antonius Pius, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Trajan and Alexander Severus. Often, an emperor would initiate the deification of his predecessor. Unfortunately, emperors such as Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Commodus, and Elagabalus were considered too “odious” to receive the honor. Caligula and Nero both considered themselves gods while they were still alive, and Commodus thought he was actually the reincarnation of Hercules.
BYZANTINE EMPIRE C. 460 CE
DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE
After a long period of truly incompetent emperors, Diocletian came to power in 284 CE. The Pax Romana or Roman peace had been dead for over one hundred years. The empire was being attacked on all sides and it was on the verge of collapse.Diocletian realized the one major flaw of the empire - its size. To solve the problem he created the tetarchy or rule of four. He divided the empire into two parts, one with its capital at Rome and another with its capital as Nicomedia (it would later be moved to Byzantium or Constantinople by Emperor Constantine). The principate initiated by Augustus was replaced by the dominate, however, he strengthened the borders, developed a more efficient bureaucracy, and stabilized the economy.Unfortunately, as the eastern half of the empire flourished, the west declined, even the city of Rome fell into ruin, until, finally, in 476 CE, the last emperor surrendered. The city's conqueror, Odoacer, refused the title of emperor.
CONCLUSION
For the most part, the people of the Roman Empire were kept reasonably happy, even during times of duress, as long as the emperors provided grain for bread and games/entertainment. Lasting monuments were built to honor many of the emperors - the Baths of Caracalla and Nero, the Arch of Constantine, and Trajan's Column. The emperor was an absolute ruler who provided stability for the people. It was never a constitutional office, quite simply, the emperor was the law.
The Life of Jesus of Nazareth in the Gospels › Antique Origins
Ancient Civilizations
The only sources for the life of Jesus of Nazareth are in the canonical gospels (or the gospels that were included in the authorised version of the New Testament). We have no contemporary, eyewitness testimony from the time that he lived and preached in Israel. The earliest gospel, Mark, was written approximately in the year 65 or 70 CE, followed by Matthew, Luke, and John. The letters of Paul, the earliest evidence of the Christian movement, were written in the 50's and 60's CE but contain very little in terms of the “historical Jesus." This is a synopsis of the events reported in the four gospels:
Sometime during the 20's of the Common Era, an itinerant preacher known as Jesus, emulating the style of the prophets of ancient Israel, began addressing crowds in his native area, mainly the Galilee region of Northern Israel. He may have been in the circle attached to a popular religious reformer known as John the Baptist and it appears that he took up the same message after John's death. His basic message was, “Repent, for the Kingdom of God is at hand!” What he meant by this was that God would soon intervene one last time in history and restore the nation of Israel whose populace would now live in an ideal kingdom, on earth, as God originally intended before the “fall” in the Garden of Eden (see Genesis). It appears from the first three gospels (Mark, Matthew, and Luke), that his preferred method of instruction was the use of the “parable,” a short, pithy, story which makes use of simple situations and characters to illustrate or illuminate higher, more abstract, concepts such as forgiveness, altruism, or one's relationship with God.
The Last Supper
According to the earliest gospel, Mark, he was also noted for miracles: curing diseases, raising people from the dead, exorcisms, or the removal of “demons,” and other seemingly miraculous feats such as the multiplying of the loaves and fishes and walking on water. He gathered disciples (students, followers) around him, in the symbolic number of “twelve” (reflecting the twelve tribes of Israel). While drawing the countryside to his message, Mark reports a constant harassment and persecution by specific groups of Jews, namely the Pharisees and the scribes and, eventually, the Sadducees. This last group was largely responsible for the maintenance and upkeep of the Temple in Jerusalem. In the gospels, the Pharisees consistently accused Jesus of “violating the Law of Moses,” but the gospel writers specifically deny that he challenged the customs of the Jews, claiming he merely offered what they understood as the “true” interpretation of this Law and the traditions associated with it..
In Mark, Matthew, and Luke, Jesus spends most of his time moving around the Galilee, and then he makes a final trip to the city of Jerusalem during the holiday of Passover (when all Jews were expected to try to make a pilgrimage to that city). In John, Jesus makes several trips to Jerusalem throughout his ministry.
WHEN JESUS ENTERS JERUSALEM, THE CROWDS USE PALM BRANCHES TO WELCOME HIM, & PROCLAIM HIM THE “MESSIAH,” OR “ANOINTED ONE".
When Jesus enters the city, the crowds use palm branches to welcome him, and proclaim him the “messiah,” or “anointed one". The gospel writers make clear in this that the crowd hailed him as a descendent of the line of King David and in so doing, add a political element to Jesus' ministry as evinced in the title accorded him as “King of the Jews”. This event, his triumphal entrance to Jerusalem, is the basis for the Christian observance of “Palm Sunday,” a week before Easter. As soon as Jesus enters the city, he goes to the outer court of the Temple and drives out the men who were selling animals for the sacrifices, as well as the men in charge of money-changing tables, claiming, “My house shall be a house of prayer for all the nations, but you have made it a den of thieves.” According to Mark, it is this incident that directly leads to the death of Jesus.
Jesus and his disciples celebrate a Passover meal on Thursday evening (Mark, Matthew, Luke), or a simple meal on Wednesday evening (John), where the tradition of the ritual known as the “last supper” takes place. This event will later become the basis for the Christian celebration of the “eucharist,” or communion meal through the letters of the apostle Paul.Jesus, for the third or fourth time, predicts his own death, but claims that he will overcome it, as the “kingdom” takes over. After dinner, he and his followers go over to the Mount of Olives, to an olive oil press area known as “Gethsemane,” and Jesus prays that God will spare him his impending torture and death. The gospels do not record any answer from God and Jesus willingly accepts his fate.
Mosaic Floor from a Villa at Hinton St. Mary
One of the disciples, Judas, betrays Jesus by telling the priests/temple captains/and or Romans (depending upon which gospel one is reading) where he will be that evening and Jesus is arrested. He is either taken to a meeting of the whole Jewish city council, or to the high-priest's house (John). A very confusing “trial” follows, where the charges are not clear (and there is variation in the number of trials and their location). Finally, in Mark, the high-priest asks Jesus if he is “the Blessed One” (meaning the “messiah”). Jesus, reticent up until this moment in Mark, answers that he is “the Son of Man,” whom tradition holds would judge mankind in the “final days,” or the time right before the “Kingdom.” At this, the high-priest claims that he has committed blasphemy, and he is condemned to death.
In the 1st century CE, the Jewish council could not enforce a death sentence and this is why we are told that Jesus is sent to Pontius Pilate, the regional governor from Rome of the Judean province which included Jerusalem. In the gospels, Pilate is portrayed as a weak, powerless ruler, who gives in to the Jews and condemns Jesus to death by crucifixion (the Romanpunishment for treason which was meted out owing to the claim that Jesus was “King of the Jews”). Jesus is then scourged and sent with his cross to the place of execution, outside the city walls. According to Mark, all of his male disciples abandon him, but the women look on as witnesses. It takes Jesus about three or four hours to die. This was on a Friday, and Friday sunset began the “Sabbath,” or the Jewish day of rest. Following his death, therefore, there is narrated a hurried attempt to remove the body from the cross and prepare it for burial before sundown since religious tradition held that one could not engage in such tasks on the sabbath.
Because Saturday was the holy day of the sabbath, no one could visit the tomb to complete the funeral rites (anointing with oil, etc.), so Sunday morning, the women came to the tomb to finish their ministrations. According to Mark, the women find the tomb empty, but in the other gospels an angel tells them that Jesus rose from the dead and that they should tell everyone to meet him in Galilee. There is no resurrection scene in Mark (whose original ending is an empty tomb) while Matthew and Luke have actual resurrection appearances by Jesus and John adds several more of these appearances to the story. This is the basis for the Christian holiday known as “Easter Sunday” “Easter” is derived from the Teutonic language of Europe, designating the fertility goddess, “Eostre”.
The Resurrection of Jesus Christ
The crucifixion/resurrection of Jesus became the basis of the Christian concept of "atonement," or the concept that Jesus willingly gave up his life so that human beings could be "saved." The general understanding is that Jesus died to "save us from our sins," or in other words, with his death, mankind can now achieve "forgiveness." The concept of atonement, per se, is not mentioned specifically in the gospels. Mark, Matthew, and Luke claim Jesus died for the “sins” of the people but do not speficy what those sins are; John states the death of Jesus was the means to get him “home” to the “Father” [God]. The concept of “atonement,” as understood in Christianity, is actually a concept first developed by the apostle Paul in his Letter to the Romans.
While absent in the earliest gospel of Mark, the narratives of Matthew and Luke add what are known as “nativity” stories, or the details of the birth of Jesus in the city of Bethlehem. Matthew introduces the Star which guides the Magi, or “wise men”, from the east who visit the newborn, while Luke adds the details of the manger (a feeding trough for animals) in a stable and the shepherds in the fields who come to worship the child. These elements are incorporated into the Christian holiday known as “Christmas.” John's gospel presents Jesus as the “logos” (word), who takes on flesh to become God's physical manifestation on earth (the Christian concept of incarnation) while the other gospels are less direct in claiming the status of godhood for Jesus. Though there are many other gospels extant, these four books which open the Christian New Testament are the only ones accepted as divinely inspired and the only accounts universally regarded by Christians as relating the truth regarding the life and ministry of Jesus Christ.
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