Harsha › Battle of Hydaspes » Origins and History
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- Harsha › Who Was
- Battle of Hydaspes › Antique Origins
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Harsha › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Emperor Harshavardhana, better known as Harsha, lived from 590 to 647 CE and was the third ruler of the Vardhana Empire, the last great empire in ancient India before the Islamic Invasion. He ruled from 606 CE to 647 CE. After Harshavardhana's death, however, the Vardhana dynasty came to an end and its empire dissolved.
India, the land beyond the Indus river, has seen many rulers who dreamt of conquering the vast country and rule from the Himalayas in the north to Deccan in south, from the mountains of Kandhar in the west to Assam in the east, yet very few have been able to subdue history according to their will. Harshavardhana was one such ruler. His empire may not be as large as the great Mauryan's, yet he deserves special mention. After the fall of great Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century CE, under whom India saw its own golden age, it was Harshavardhana who unified most of northern India and ruled for four decades from his capital Kannauj.
RISE TO POWER & MILITARY CAMPAIGNS
The Vardhana dynasty was started by Prabhakarana Vardhana who ruled the kingdom of Thaneshwar, modern-day Haryana.Prabhakarana's queen Yasovati gave birth to two sons Rajyavardhana and Harshawardhana and a daughter named Rajyashri who was later married to king Grahvarmana of Kanyakubja, modern-day Kannauj. This was a period of tension as India had to frequently deal with the invasion of the Huns of Central Asia. Once, emperor Skandagupta of the Gupta Empire laid a crushing defeat on these barbaric tribes, yet these constant fights were so costly that they weakened the empire to the core, and this eventually led to the downfall of the Gupta Empire. As the western frontiers of India and areas adjoining the Indus river were under the occupation of Huns, skirmishes between Huns and Thaneshwar were regular. While Harsha and his brother were busy dealing with the Huns in the west, king Prabhakarana died in Thaneshwar. He was succeeded by his elder son, Rajyavardhana.
AFTER HIS BROTHER'S DEATH, AT THE AGE OF 16, HARSHAVARDHANA BECAME THE UNDISPUTED RULER OF THANESHWAR AND DECLARED WAR ON SASAKA TO AVENGE HIS BROTHER AND EMBARKED UPON A CAMPAIGN OF DIGVIJAY, IE TO CONQUER THE WORLD.
Meanwhile, in the east far greater events were happening which altered the course of history. Sasaka, king of Gauda, modern-day Bengal, marched and killed king Grahvarmana, Rajyashri's husband, and then kidnapped her. The kidnapping of his sister forced the elder Vardhana brother to march east and confront Sasaka. Sasaka then invited Rajyavardhana for a meeting and treacherously killed him. After his brother's death, at the age of 16, Harshavardhana became the undisputed ruler of Thaneshwar and declared war on Sasaka to avenge his brother and embarked upon a campaign of Digvijay, ie to conquer the world (which in this context means conquering whole India). Yet, his foremost enemy was now Sasaka who had to face an angry brother's wrath. Harsha issued a proclamation to all kings known to either declare allegiance to him or face him on the battlefield. As Sasaka's enemies responded to Harsha's call, he marched on to Kannuaj.
Although there is no evidence, a story in Harshacharitra claims that Rajyashri, when released from prison, took refuge in the forest of Vindhyas. Hearing this, Harsha hurriedly went into the forest to save her and found her just when she was about to commit suicide by throwing herself in a fire. Rescuing his sister, he rejoined his army at the bank of Ganges. After this, Harsha easily conquered Kannauj as Sasaka went back to Bengal, and thus began a long enmity. It was only after Sasaka's death that Harsha was able to control entire eastern India including Magadha, Bengal and Kalinga.
Harsha's Digvijay, or the conquest of the world had now begun. After Kannauj, he turned his attention towards Gujarat. He defeated the local Valabhi kingdom and expanded his empire. Yet, this rapid expansion led to tensions between him and the Chalukya king Pulakesin II. It was now that the most powerful kingdoms of northern and southern India came face-to-face on the battlefield on the banks of river Narmada. In the end, the southerners under the able leadership of Pulakesin II prevailed leaving the ambitious northern ruler, Harsha, defeated. They say Harsha lost his cheer when he saw his elephants dying in the battle.
Harsha entered a peace treaty with the Chalukya king, which established Narmada river as the southern boundary of his empire and after that he never advanced south again. Yet, this did not halt his conquest of the north. He took the title of sakaluttara patha natha (lord of northern India). Hieun Tsang tells us that:
He waged incessant warfare, until in six years he had fought thr five Indians(referring to five largest kingdoms).Then, having enlarges his territory, he increased his army, bringing the elephant corps upto 60,000 and the cavalry upto 100,000, and reigned in peace for thirty years without raising a weapon (Majumdar, 252).
Yet many historians believe his claim may be exaggerated. Still, this gives a glimpse of his military prowess.
The Vardhana Empire consisted of two distinctive types of territories: areas directly under Harsha's rule such as Central Provinces, Gujarat, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, and the states and kingdoms which had become feudatories under him including Jalandhar, Kashmir, Nepal, Sind, Kamarupa (modern-day Assam). Thus, many historians do not find the title justified as he was never able to bring the entire north under a single command. Yet, this does not mean his power was not felt beyond the limits of his direct rule. His writ ran across entire north India. Under his command, King of Jalandhar escorted the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang to the frontiers of India. Another time, king of Kashmir had to submit a tooth relic of Buddha to Harsha.The Chinese source suggests that the King of Kamarupa could not dare to detain a Chinese pilgrim in his capital against the wishes of Harsha.
ART & EDUCATION
Harsha was a patron of both art and education. He himself was an author and wrote three Sanskrit plays, Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika. One-fourth of his revenue went for patronizing scholars. Hiuen Tsang gives a quite vivid description of the famous Nalanda University which was at its zenith during Harsha's reign. He described how the regularly laid-out towers, forests of pavilions, temples seemed to "soar above the mists in the sky" so that from their cells the monks "might witness the birth of the winds and clouds".
The pilgrim states:
The pilgrim states:
An azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade (Grousset,158,159).
In its heyday, Nalanda had around 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers. The admission process was very strict. Records say there was a rigorous oral examination conducted by gatekeepers, and many used to be rejected. The curriculum included Vedas, Buddhism, philosophy, logic, urban planning, medicine, law, astronomy, etc.
Ruins of Nalanda
SOCIETY & RELIGION
Caste system was prevalent among Hindus. They were divided into four castes or varna: Brahmana, Vaishya, Kshariya and Shudra, which among them had their own subcastes. The untouchables, who came at the lowest in the hierarchy, led a miserable life. The status of women declined as compared to the liberal era of earlier times. Satipratha (widow immolation) was common, and widow remarriage was not allowed in higher castes.
Harsha was a worshiper of Shiva in the beginning but later became a Mahayana Buddhist. Yet, he was tolerant of other faiths. With a view to popularize and propagate the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism, Harsha arranged at Kannauj a great assembly which was presided over by Hiuen Tsang. Hiuen Tsang took a lot of manuscripts to China and translated more than 600 of them from Sanskrit. Another great ceremony was held for 75 days at Prayag (Allahabad). The images of Buddha, Sun and Siva were worshiped, and gifts of valuable articles and clothing were distributed in charity. Every five years religious ceremonies were celebrated at the ancient city of Allahabad. Here, he held the ceremony of Dana, or giving, which lasted for three months. During this, most of the wealth accumulated in the last five years was exhausted. Once, he even gave his clothes and jewellery and begged his sister for an ordinary garment to wear.
DEATH & LEGACY
Harsha's empire marked the beginning of feudalism in India. Land was granted in villages, which made the local landlords powerful. This led to the weakening of the empire and gave rise to local feuds. Harsha had to be in constant movement to keep things in order.
Harsha died in 647 AD, and the empire with him. The death of Harshavardhana is not well documented. It is said that he was married to Durgavati and had two sons named Vagyavardhana and Kalyanvardhana. The story goes that they were killed by a minister in his court, even before the death of Harsha himself. Therefore, Harsha died without any heir. As a result, Arjuna, one of the chief ministers took up the thrones. Later in 648 CE, Arjuna was captured and held prisoner in an attack by the Tibetians.
Battle of Hydaspes › Antique Origins
Ancient Civilizations
For almost a decade, Alexander the Great and his army swept across Western Asia and into Egypt, defeating King DariusIII and the Persians at the battles of River Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela. Next, despite the objections of the loyal army who had been with him since leaving Macedonia in 334 BCE, he turned his attention southward towards India. It was there, in 326 BCE, that he would achieve what many would consider as his last major victory, the Battle of Hydaspes (in modern Pakistan). In the view of one historian it would be Alexander at his very best - a fitting climax to his conquests of Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt and Persia. At Hydaspes he would meet a formidable opponent in King Porus, but more importantly, his military savvy would be challenged as never before by an unforgiving climate and a new, even larger foe, the elephant.
Battle of Hydaspes
The Battle of Hydaspes has been viewed by many as an ambitious undertaking, beyond anything Alexander had ever done, but the young king understood that in order to continue his march across India he had to defeat King Porus. Alexander's initial march across India went relatively unchallenged, gaining a number of allies along the way. With the hope of avoiding a battle with the Indian king, he sent an agent to Porus seeking a peaceful resolution, but the proud king refused to pay tribute, telling Alexander that he would meet him in battle. He felt confident, believing his greatest defense lay in the river itself - over a mile wide, deep, and fast moving (unlike the river Granicus). By the time of Alexander's arrival it would be further swollen by the monsoon season and the melting snow of the Himalayas.
TIMING OF THE BATTLE
Porus believed and hoped Alexander would have to either wait for the monsoon season to end before crossing or simply abandon his quest and leave. In preparation for the Macedonians' arrival, he stationed his army in a defensive position along the river and waited. While exact numbers vary, estimates place Porus with 20-50,000 infantry, over 2,000 cavalry, upwards to 200 elephants and more than 300 chariots. As in previous battles, Alexander would be facing an army that outnumbered him, something that never seemed to worry him. Unfortunately for Porus, he had underestimated the brilliance of the young Macedonian king.
IN ORDER TO PREPARE FOR THE INEVITABLE BATTLE, ALEXANDER HAD GATHERED SUPPORT FROM MANY OF THE LOCAL RAJAHS INCLUDING TAXILA.
As Porus had anticipated, Alexander made camp directly across from him on the west side of the Hydaspes and gave every indication he would wait for the monsoon season to end, even going so far as having large grain shipments sent in from his Indian ally King Taxila (also known as Omphis). But, in reality, he had no intention of waiting. In order to prepare for the inevitable battle, he had gathered support from many of the local rajahs including Taxila - a move Alexander had hoped would anger Porus. Alexander had also arrived at the Hydaspes well-prepared. Before marching into India, he had recruited additional troops from many of the Persian territories he had conquered, training them in the Macedonian style of fighting - a move that had angered the veteran Macedonian soldiers. Lastly, anticipating Porus' use of elephants, he added Scythian horse-archers.
PREPARATIONS
Across the river, Porus was also preparing and waiting with his army of elephants, cavalry, infantry, and six-man chariots. The six-man team of these included two charioteers or mahouts, two shield-bearers, and two archers. Porus believed he had the ultimate advantage; he had only to remain in his defensive position, guard the best potential crossing spots, and slaughter Alexander's army as they emerged from the river. But, if the Macedonians were successful and crossed, they had to face his elephants. For the first time elephants (although there are some who claim elephants were at Gaugamela) were introduced to the West. While the use of elephants has a positive side (horses hate them), they panic easily and are difficult to control. Still, Alexander and others - including the great Carthaginian Hannibal - would use them in future battles. In his The Life of Alexander the Great historian Plutarch gives an account of Alexander's arrival at the Hydaspes:
Alexander, in his own letters, has given as account of his war with Porus. He says the two armies were separated by the river Hydaspes, on whose opposite bank Porus continually kept his elephants in order of battle, with their heads towards their enemies, to guard the passage, that he, on the other hand, made every day a great noise and clamour in his camp, to dissipate the apprehensions of the barbarians…
Alexander the Great
Alexander and his army sat across the Hydaspes, facing Porus, each king quite visible to the other. Realizing there might be spies in his camp, Alexander voiced aloud how he could easily wait until the end of the monsoon season before engaging the Indian king in battle. To support his boast he built numerous campfires along his side of the river, marching his men back and forth in formation - all the while searching for a suitable crossing spot. Curiosity drove Porus to initially shadow these movements, finally deciding they were only a diversion and stopped, although he continued to monitor possible crossing locations. In his The Campaigns of Alexander, historian Arrian wrote of this search for a crossing:
Alexander's answer was by continual movement of his own troops to keep Porus guessing: he split his force into a number of detachments, moving some of them under his own command hither and thither all over the place, destroying enemy possessions and looking for places where the river might be crossed…
Porus continued to be hopeful that Alexander would simply give up and leave. Some historians believe Porus was unsure whether or not he could defeat the Macedonians. He would soon have his chance to find out. After a long tedious search, a suitable location to cross was found about eighteen miles from the Macedonian camp at a bend in the river - a heavily wooded area that would be the perfect place to provide cover. It was late evening and a terrible thunderstorm was raging, but Alexander and his army were ready.
CROSSING THE RIVER
In order to keep Porus unaware of his crossing, Alexander left Craterus in camp with a sufficient force and orders not to cross himself until later. One story tells of Alexander leaving a soldier dressed as the king to further confuse Porus. Alexander took with him part of the Companion cavalry, the mounted archers, and several infantry units under Hephaestion, Perdiccos and Demitrios. The crossing was to be in three waves. In order to safely cross the river Alexander made rafts from tents and used the thirty galleys and boats from his crossing of the Indus River. In total he crossed with an estimated 15,000 cavalry and 11,000 infantry. Unfortunately, the crossing did not go as smoothly as he had hoped. Alexander was surprised that instead of reaching the opposite shore he landed on a large island in the middle of the river. From the island to the other side, his men would have to wade across. Of course, there is some disagreement on whether or not Alexander knew of the island - it could have been a mistake or it may have been on purpose. Many do not believe the existence of a large island would have been something Alexander could have missed.
After reaching the shore at dawn, Alexander regrouped his army into battle formation and prepared for his meeting with Porus.The Companion cavalry was stationed in front of the infantry (not all of the infantry had crossed as they would join Alexander later) while the mounted archers served as a defensive screen against the elephants ahead of the cavalry because Alexander was reluctant to have his cavalry advance without protection. Scouts for Porus had already seen the Macedonian's crossing and informed the Indian king of Alexander's arrival. Porus prepared to retaliate.
BATTLE
In a futile attempt to delay Alexander, Porus sent his son with 3,000 cavalry and 120 chariots. This attempt spelled disaster for Porus. Alexander killed the son and destroyed the cavalry and chariots; the few survivors fled back to Porus. Arrian, who most believe has the most accurate account of the battle, addressed this confrontation:
…and the Indians, seeing Alexander there in person and his massed cavalry coming at them in successive charges, squadron by squadron, broke and fled …. Porus' son being among the killed; their chariots and horses were captured as they attempted to get away…
Without waiting for the additional infantry to cross, Alexander advanced the six miles towards the Indian camp where he would wait for the remainder of his infantry to arrive. “Alexander had no intention of making the fresh enemy troops a present of his own breathless and exhausted men, so he paused before advancing to the attack.” (Arrian). Since most contemporary sources are lost, there is considerable disagreement from later historians over the facts of the battle. However, there is agreement on how Porus prepared to meet the Macedonian army, placing his best weapon, the elephants, on his front line ahead of his infantry. The Indian cavalry was situated on the right and left flanks screened by the six-man chariots. In the middle was Porus astride his elephant.
Alexander the Great in Combat
As with his other battles in Greece and Persia, Alexander relied on many of the same techniques that had proven successful.Most sources agree that Alexander, stationed on the right, used the Companion cavalry to attack Porus' flanks while his horse archers pelted the elephants with arrows. Coenus, whose initial location is uncertain, attacked Porus' right flank while Alexander assaulted his left. In a defensive maneuver Porus sent his cavalry from the right to circle back and help his left against Alexander. Next, Porus, who awaited help from his ally King Abisares of Kashmir, sent his elephants against the Macedonian phalanx. Slowly, the infantry pulled back but without breaking ranks as the horse-archers attacked with a barrage of arrows. Unfortunately for the Indian army, the elephants panicked and revolted, actually causing more harm to Porus' own men than to Alexander. Arrian wrote:
In time the elephants tired and their charges grew feebler, and with nothing worse than trumpeting. Taking his chance, Alexander surrounded the lot of them – elephants, horsemen, and all – and then signaled his infantry to lock shields and move up in a solid mass. Most of the Indian cavalry was cut down in the ensuing action; their infantry, too, hard pressed by the Macedonians, suffered terrible losses.
Meanwhile, Coenus circled around Porus' rear and attacked his left flank from behind. Porus' army fled straight into the waiting Craterus who had already crossed the river - 12,000 Indians and 80 elephants died to only 1,000 Macedonians.
PORUS CAPTURED & AFTERMATH
Throughout the battle King Porus remained on his elephant, despite suffering severe wounds, shocked to see his army flee but still reluctant to admit defeat and surrender. Alexander approached the proud, defeated king and asked him how he wanted to be treated - to which Porus responded that he wanted to be treated as a king. Alexander respected this and told Porus he would remain king, owing allegiance to Alexander. Plutarch wrote:
When Porus was taken prisoner, and Alexander asked him how he expected to be used, he answered, “As a king.' For that expression, he said, when the same question was put to him a second time, comprehended everything. And Alexander, accordingly, not only suffered him to govern his own kingdom as satrap under himself, but gave him also the additional territory of various independent tribes whom he subdued…
From Hydaspes Alexander continued on towards the Indian Ocean. Sadly, this final march would be without his beloved Bucephalus. The great horse who he had been with him since his youth had died - reportedly either from old age (he was over thirty) or battle wounds. Alexander would build a city in his honor, Bucephalia. Unfortunately, Alexander's march to the ocean would not go without challenge. His army finally won their own battle with the king, convincing him to return home.About this decision Plutarch wrote, “Alexander at first was so grieved and enraged at his men's reluctancy that he shut himself up in his tent and threw himself upon the ground…but at last the reasonable persuasions of his friends and the cries and lamentations of his soldiers…prevailed with him to think of returning.” Alexander would return to Babylon where he would die in 323 BCE. Following his death, his vast empire would be the scene of a series of Successor Wars for the next three decades.
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