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Desert Kites › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
Desert kites are constructions that consist of two long walls converging upon an enclosed space that has on its periphery small stone constructions called cells. Seen from the sky, their shape suggests that of a windborne kite; they were thus called kites by pilots who flew over the arid regions of the Near East in the time of the French and British mandates of the first half of the 20th century CE. These kites combine various characteristics, which in archaeology have been the object of particular research. However, most methods of investigation are useless because of the nature of these constructions.
In spite of many studies, and although it is possible to advance several serious hypotheses, no one can confirm with certainty today the age or function of these structures or the culture which they represent! (It is generally agreed that they served to gather animals together, but whether they were used for wild or domesticated animals is uncertain.) Moreover, recent access to high-resolution satellite images has revealed that there are many more kites than were thought a few years ago, over an area that extends from the Arabian Peninsula to the Aral Sea. Thus, piercing the mystery of the “kites phenomenon” involves avenues of research that have implications for questions as fundamental and diverse as animal economy, disappearance of species, development of subsistence territories, and even the development of urbanism.
PETROGLYPHS REPRESENTING KITES HAVE BEEN FOUND, BUT IT IS NOT CLEAR WHETHER THEY ARE HUNTING OR PASTORAL SCENES. IN FACT, WE KNOW NOTHING OF HOW A KITE FUNCTIONED.
MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
Kites are composed of an enclosure of variable shape and size and more or less continuous walls that converge towards the entrance; these walls can sometimes be absent but are usually two in number and sometimes three, four, or more. Their length is commonly several hundred meters and can even reach several kilometres, while their height is no more than a few decimetres. The enclosures are variable in shape (circular, triangular, star-shaped…), and their size, larger than the majority of pastoral enclosures, varies from a few hundred square meters to more than ten hectares.
The small stone constructions or cells that are joined to the external part of the enclosure have walls that are often higher than those of the enclosure. They are circular or quadrangular in shape and their number varies from a single cell to several dozen.If several often-observed particularities are considered, such as a disposition of the cells near the entrance, the existence of cells at the extremity of pointed appendices and the particular shapes of the entrance, the variability among the kites makes it difficult to propose a typology. Kites are found in arid environments, steppes, and desert margins, and their topographical location is clearly the result of a definite choice in many cases. A break in the slope is very often observed at the position of the entrance and various topographic configurations were preferred to flat topography.
Example of kite
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
The principle of an enclosure at the extremity of converging walls appears to be universal in character, as constructions of this type are found in several regions of the world (North and South America, Scandinavia, etc.) in terrestrial as well as aquatic environments. However, kites are distinguished from other constructions by the presence of cells adjoining the enclosure.
The first kites identified, and the most numerous, are located in the Harrat-al-Sham, between Syria and Jordan. There are other zones of high density, but these are more circumscribed: in the Palmyrenides in Syria, in the Hejaz near Khaybar, and recently discovered in Armenia. Other regions contain kites that are more dispersed, although they are rarely isolated and are usually grouped together: in the regions of Damascus and Qaratein, in the Jebel al Has, and on the plateau of Hemma in Syria.
In Arabia, they are also found in the northern margins of the Nefud, in the prolongation of the Harrat al-Sham. An important group was recently discovered in the southern foothills of the Taurus in southern Turkey. Another important group, long known to Russian archaeologists, is situated on the plateau of Ustyurt, in the Aralo-Caspian zone. Finally, there are two small groups of related constructions which are generally called kites, but with very particular morphological features: one in the Negev, the other in the region of Marib in Yemen. In total, the most recent inventory (summer 2014) includes more than 4500 kites.
The distribution of kites
FUNCTION
It is generally agreed that kites served to gather together animals. But opinions are divided on the question of whether the herds were wild or domestic. The hypothesis of hunting prevails, although the pastoral hypothesis has not been refuted. In favour of the first is the known use for hunting of the small traps of the Negev, particularly well-studied but not numerous and quite unusual. Moreover, several elements would appear to lend themselves to the practice of hunting, such as the presence of a break in the slope at the entrance to the enclosure which probably served to mask the latter from the animals before they entered it. Similarly, certain regions present kites that are organised in chains, all oriented in the same direction, which would correspond to the hunting of animals on migration.
Finally, a deposit of gazelle bones containing many individuals of different age and sex, indicating massive non-selective hunting, has been discovered some ten kilometres from a series of kites in north-eastern Syria. This discovery is intriguing, but proves nothing concerning the use of kites, even less their role in the disappearance of the great herds. Petroglyphs representing kites have also been found, but it is not clear whether these should be interpreted as hunting scenes or pastoral ones. In fact, we know nothing of how a kite functioned. In particular, we do not know the purpose of the little cells, although they appear to have been essential, to judge by their omnipresence and the care taken in their construction; they could have served as hides, as pits, or even as domestic spaces.
Example of cell
DATING
In spite of several studies on the subject of the age of the kites, only a few indices have been found. There are problems of methodology, as archaeological material is generally absent. Excavations have not produced the remains of tools, traces of use, or animal bones, while carbonised materials suitable for dating are rare. Material scattered on the surface can sometimes be recovered, but this rarely concerns a particular period or use and does not present a spatial distribution suitable to establishing a relationship with the kite.
There is one notable exception: a significant number of dates established (radiocarbon on charcoal, IRSL of sediments and examination of artefacts) for several traps in the Negev demonstrate use centred on the early Bronze Age. Unfortunately, these structures, of a very particular size and morphology, are few and relatively detached spatially from the other kites of the region; neither the age nor the function of kites can be established based on such particular examples.
For all the other kites, that is, almost all the corpus, we have only a few clues. In chronological order:
- Based on relative chronology and/or on artefacts found on the surface, two authors are in agreement that the kites of the Harrat al-Sham in Jordan correspond to the end of the Neolithic ;
- In southern Syria, the excavation of a kite and cross-checking with relative dating has enabled its dating to the beginning of the early Bronze Age;
- On the basis of rock engravings depicting kites, those in north-eastern Syria could date to the early Bronze Age;
- In Armenia, based on a series of absolute (radiocarbon) and relative evidence, it could be established that the kites were used between the beginning of the Bronze Age and the change of era;
- The well-known Safaïtic engraving on the cairn of Hani suggests the use of kites in the Roman period;
- Based on various evidence (including recent radiocarbon dating), the use of some kites in the Aralo-Caspian zone goes back to the Iron Age and persisted to the sub-contemporary period;
- We have several travellers' accounts of between the 17th and 19th centuries who describe collective hunting of gazelles in the Near East, but it is not certain that the structures described correspond to the kites we observe today.
This evidence, low in quantity and sometimes unsure, appears to indicate long-term use. However, these indications are very scattered across the area of distribution which besides shows a great morphological diversity. In the present state of the available data, it is not possible to propose a simple and clear chronology.
Dead Sea Scrolls › Antique Origins
Definition and Origins
The Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) are a collection of scrolls found in the desert east of Jerusalem on the shore of the Dead Sea.They represent the largest manuscript collections of texts from the Second Temple Period found in the area of Judah, an area notorious for its lack of manuscripts. Around 930 texts were found in 11 caves in the hills surrounding Khirbet (=ruins of) Qumran. The texts are the product of a community of Essenes who lived in the nearby ruins of Qumran and were composed between the 3rd century BCE and the 1st century CE. They are significant because they shed considerable light on the religious and political world of late Second Temple Judaism and on the text of the Hebrew Bible.
SURVEY OF MANUSCRIPTS
The DSS have been given a standardized numbering system illustrated as follows:
There is a commentary (known as a pesher, see below) on Nahum. The text is numbered as 4Q169. It was the 169th manuscript found in cave 4. All manuscripts follow this standardized number system. There are a few exceptions. For example, the Great Isaiah Scroll, one of the first manuscripts found, is numbered as 1QIsa a. Note that it is still given the numbering 1Q (meaning it was found Cave 1).
Biblical Scrolls
The term “biblical” is inappropriate when applied to the DSS because “the Bible” as we know it today did not exist in Second Temple Judaism (515 BCE-70 CE). Rather than denoting a set of texts with a special level of authority, “biblical scrolls” refers to those texts found in the Tanakh/Hebrew Bible/Protestant Old Testament. This is a classification imposed upon the DSS by later scholars.
Among the DSS, every book of the Hebrew Bible has been found except for Esther. However, not all books are equally attested. The Psalms (34 different scrolls), Deuteronomy (30), Isaiah (21), and Genesis (20) are the four most prevalent biblical scrolls. Eccleasties has only two different scrolls, and Ezra, Nehmiah, and Chronicles only have one scroll each.
THE BIBLICAL SCROLLS FOUND AMONG THE DSS REPRESENTED A SIGNIFICANT OPPORTUNITY TO STUDY THE TEXT OF THE STANDARD HEBREW BIBLE.
The biblical scrolls found among the DSS represented a significant opportunity to study the text of the standard Hebrew Bible, the Masoretic Text. For example, the version of Jeremiah found in the Septuagint (the Greek Translation of the Hebrew Bible) is one eighth shorter than that found in the Masoretic Text. It was initially thought that the Septuagint represented a poor translation. However, Hebrew versions of both the longer and shorter versions have been found among the DSS. Contrary to the claims of some, no single New Testament manuscript has been found among the DSS.
Targumim
Targumim (plural of targum ) are special Aramaic translations and interpretations (targum in Hebrew for “translation). A highly fragmentary targum of Leviticus and two targumim of Job (one, 11Q10, is one of the most complete manuscripts) have been found among the DSS. These finds are significant because they reframed the debate regarding how early the targumim were written down. Until 1947, we had no evidence of a targum written down before the Common Era.
Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical Scrolls
Like “biblical” this classification is anachronistic, but useful. It designates works that were not biblical in the sense of becoming part of the Hebrew Bible nor are unique to the Qumran community. This group of texts includes things such as the Psalm 151, a psalm only appearing in Greek until its discovery among the Dead Sea Scrolls (11QPsa), Jewish apocalyptic (on apocalypticism see the definition on the Qumran Essenes) works such as 1 Enoch and Jubilees (both of which outnumber individual biblical scrolls).
Pesherim
Pesherim (plural of pesher ) are special running commentaries on various prophetic texts and the Psalms of the Hebrew Bible.In contrast to the targumim, these commentaries are written in Hebrew and are aimed specifically at the Qumran community and are written in Hebrew.
Thematic Commentaries
While the pesharim are running commentaries, these commentaries draw on the various texts of the Hebrew Bible and are focused on a specific theme or themes, particularly the end of the current age.
Dead Sea Scrolls - The War Scroll
Paraphrases
A number of paraphrases were found among the DSS, mostly on the Torah (eg 4Q127, a Greek paraphrase of Exodus) and the Historical Books (eg 4Q382, a paraphrase of Kings).
Legal Scrolls
Several legal texts have been found among the DSS. These are among the most important texts for understanding not only the Qumran Community, but also Jewish legal interpretation of the Second Temple Period in general. Some of the texts (eg The Temple Scroll [11Q19 is the best-preserved copy] and the Rule of the Community [1QS is the best-preserved copy]) are specifically for the Qumran community. Others are meant not only for a sectarian community, but also for Essenes living in the towns and cities of Judea (eg the Damascus Document).
Scrolls for use in Worship
While books like the Psalms functioned as resources used in worship, a number of original works, some of which were clearly meant to resemble the Psalms.
Eschatological Scrolls
The Qumran Essenes were an eschatological community. Briefly described, eschatology is a belief that the end of the current age is near. Eschatological communities would order their beliefs and practices. In addition to popular Jewish eschatological texts as 1 Enoch and Jubilees, the Qumran community produced a number of works regarding the final days. Some works focus on the days running up to the end (eg the War Scroll [1QM]). Others are concerned with the new age, particularly with the new Jerusalem and a newly rebuilt temple (eg 1Q32, 2Q24, 4Q232, 4Q554).
Wisdom Scrolls
A number of works are reminiscent of canonical wisdom works such as Psalms and Proverbs. Though these works are closely related to wisdom literature, they are still eschatological in nature, focusing on the end times and right actions for the community.
The Copper Scroll (3Q15)
This final scroll is an enigma. No scholar is certain what it is, what it means, or how it functioned in the community. First of all, it is engraved on copper suggesting that this was originally not meant as a scroll. Second, though it was found in cave three, it was found apart from the rest of the scrolls, suggesting it might have been a separate deposit in the cave. Third, once it was finally unrolled and translated, the text appeared to be a treasure map written in Hebrew, but with random Greek letters placed throughout the text. John Marco Allegro, an early scrolls scholar, thought it was a literal treasure map and attempted to find what he thought was the hidden riches of the Qumran community. However, due to the fact that a number of the locations in the text are unknown, he was unsuccessful. Some scholars continue to maintain that it is still a literal treasure map. Others think it is a work of fiction. The Copper Scroll remains an enigma with no consensus forming about its interpretation or function in the Qumran community.
Qumram Caves
DISCOVERY
The discovery of the scrolls is a convoluted story which must be presented in a very brief manner here.
In late 1946 or 1947 CE, three Bedouin (a nomadic Arab ethnic group) wandering in the desert along the Northwest shore of the Dead Sea along the Wadi Qumran stumbled across a cave containing ten jars. All but two of which were empty. One contained dirt, but the other contained what later proved to be the Great Isaiah Scroll, a rule book called The Manual of Discipline (or the Rule of the Community), and a commentary on the biblical book of Habakkuk. Later four other scrolls were found by the Bedouin. It took nearly a year before the scholarly world was made aware of the existence of these seven manuscripts, though the original seven would remain in two separate collections until 1954 CE.
Once the Bedouin realized the value of the manuscripts they began combing the hills around Khirbet Qumran in search of other caves. The next cave was not found until February 1952 CE (Cave 2). Archeologists found their first cave in March (Cave3). The most spectacular find came in September 1952 when two archaeologists, following the tip of some Bedouin, excavated Cave 4. Cave 4 yielded around 100 different manuscripts. Following Cave 4, another seven caves were found. The final cave (Cave 11) was found in 1956 CE. There were subsequent attempts by archaeologists to find more caves containing manuscripts but none have been found.
With the flurry of manuscript discoveries, included a number of finds dating from the Bar Kokhba Rebellion (132-136 CE), it is only natural that with it came an interest in the ruins near the caves. Six seasons of excavations took place at Khirbet Qumran between 1951 and 1958 CE.
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