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Chinese Literature › Origins
Definition and Origins
Chinese literature is some of the most imaginative and interesting in the world. The precision of the language results in perfectly realized images whether in poetry or prose and, as with all great literature from any culture, the themes are timeless.The Chinese valued literature highly and had a god of literature in their pantheon named Wen Chang (also known as Wendi, Wen Ti). Wen Chang kept track of all the writers in China and what they produced to reward to punish them according to how well or poorly they had used their talents. This god was thought to have once been a man named Zhang Ya, a brilliant writer who drowned himself after a disappointment and was deified. He presided not only over written works and writers but over Chinese script itself.
Ancient Chinese script evolved from the practice of divination during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE). The pictographs made on oracle bones by diviners became the script known as Jiaguwen (c. 1600-1000 BCE) which developed into Dazhuan (c. 1000-700 BCE), Xiaozhuan (700 BCE - present), and Lishu (the so-called "Clerky Script", c. 500 BCE). From these also developed Kaishu, Xingshu, and Caoshu, cursive scripts which writers later used in prose, poetry, and other kinds of artistic works.
Exactly when writing was first used in China is not known since most writing would have been done on perishable materials like wood, bamboo, or silk. Scholar Patricia Buckley Ebrey writes, "In China, as elsewhere, writing, once adopted has profound effects on social and cultural processes (26)." The bureaucracy of China came to rely on written records but eventually writing was used for self-expression to create some of the greatest literature in the world. Paper was invented in c.105 BCE during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE), and the process of woodblock printing developed during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), and by that time China had already developed an impressive body of literary works.
EARLY STORIES
The earliest written works in China are ghost stories and myths. Ebrey writes how early Han literature is "rich in references to spirits, portents, myths, the strange and powerful, the death-defying and the dazzling (71)". The Chinese were especially concerned with ghosts because the appearance of someone who had died meant that the living had somehow failed them, usually by improper honor in burial, and the dead would haunt the living until the wrong was righted. If the dead could not find their family, they would find anyone nearby.
One famous story is about five brothers who are visited by the ghost of a little girl. They cannot get rid of the ghost until they finally seal her in a hollow log, cap both ends, and throw it into the river. The ghost thanks them for giving her a proper burial and sails away. In another story, the ghost of a mother whose grave was defiled returns to tell her son and ask him to avenge her dishonor. The son does not question the vision for a moment and reports the event to the authorities, who apprehend the criminals and execute them. Ghost stories served to emphasize important cultural values such as the proper treatment of the dead and honoring one's fellow citizens.
GHOST STORIES SERVED TO EMPHASIZE IMPORTANT CULTURAL VALUES SUCH AS THE PROPER TREATMENT OF THE DEAD AND HONORING ONE'S FELLOW CITIZENS.
A story which exemplifies this is a famous tale concerning a man named Commandant Yang. Yang had lived selfishly and caused great harm to many people without much thought. When he died and went to the afterlife he found himself in front of a tribunal. He was asked by the king of the underworld how he managed to have so many sins built up on his soul. Yang maintained his innocence and said he had done nothing wrong. The king of the underworld commanded that scrolls be brought in and read. As Yang stood in judgment, a clerk read the date and time of his sins, who was affected by his actions, and how many died because of his decisions. Yang was condemned, and a giant hand appeared and crushed him into bloody pulp.
In another tale, a man named Coffin Head Li is a bully who preys on cats and dogs. One day he is visited by two men dressed in dark purple robes. They tell him he has been condemned in the afterlife for his abuse of animals. Coffin Head Li refuses to believe them and asks who put them up to this joke. They tell him that they are ghosts, sent from the afterlife, and then produce an official document in which the souls of 460 cats and dogs have registered complaints against him for their abuse and death. Coffin Head Li is condemned and taken away. The abuse of living things, whether people or animals, was considered a grave sin against the community, and ghost stories about immoral acts by people such as Commandant Yang and Coffin Head Li served as cautionary tales of what happened to people who behaved badly.
Ghost stories were accompanied by myths about the Kunlun Mountains where the gods and great men of the past lived. These myths also expressed cultural values and impressed their lessons on audiences. One early myth concerns the demi-god Gun who tried to stop the great flood during the Xia Dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BCE). Gun fails and either kills himself or is exiled and the emperor appoints his son Yu to complete the job. Yu understands that his father failed because he tried to do too much by himself without asking others for help, refused to respect the forces of nature, and had overestimated his own abilities. Yu learned from his father's mistakes and invited everyone to help him control the flood. By encouraging his neighbors' participation, and respecting their abilities and the power of nature, he succeeded and became known as Yu the Great who founded the Xia Dynasty and established the order of rule.
During the Han Dynasty, a very popular myth was the Queen Mother of the West. Ebrey writes,
Her paradise was portrayed as a land of marvels where trees of deathlessness grew and rivers of immortality flowed. Mythical birds and beasts were her constant companions, including the three-legged crow, the dancing toad, the nine-tailed fox, and the elixir-producing rabbit (71).
The myth became so popular it grew into a cult, which forced the Han administration to commission shrines to the Queen Mother of the West and acknowledge her worship as a legitimate faith. The popularity of the myth came from its promise of eternal life if one accepted the Queen Mother of the West into their hearts. Followers wore talismans representing her on strings around their necks and carried texts of the story. Ebrey writes, "This movement was the first recorded messianic, millenarian movement in Chinese history. It coincided with prophecies foretelling the end of the dynasty (73)." In this time of uncertainty, the people latched on to a myth which upheld important values of the past; in this case, that value was permanence. The Han Dynasty might fall but, through faith in the Queen Mother of the West, the individual could continue to live eternally. The texts concerning her, which appear to have been very popular and widely circulated, were mainly hand-written in the Han Dynasty and afterwards. During the Tang Dynasty, though, a process became popular which would make written texts even more accessible to people and help preserve the cultural heritage of the country.
WOODBLOCK PRINTING AND BOOKS
The Chinese produced poetry, literature, drama, histories, personal essays, and every other kind of writing imaginable all of which was done by hand and then copied. The creation of woodblock printing, which became widespread during the Tang Dynasty under the second emperor Taizong (626-649 CE), made books more available to people. Before the invention of woodblock printing, any text had to be copied by hand; this process took a long time, and the copies were very expensive.Woodblock printing was a kind of printing press whereby a text could be copied quickly and easily by carving the characters in relief on wooden blocks which were then inked and pressed to paper.
Chinese woodblock print
This method allowed writers to reach a wider audience than they had previously. Even though the technology of woodblock printing had been known since the Qin Dynasty, it had not been used to any great extent. During the Tang Dynasty, poets like the great Wang Wei (c. 701-761 CE) were read and appreciated by people who would have never heard of his work before.Scholar Harold M. Tanner writes, "Wang Wei was not only a poet but also an accomplished painter. Some said that his paintings entered his poetry and his poems were suffused with the images of his paintings (189)." Most poets were also painters and Wang Wei's contemporaries created their own masterpieces equal to or greater than his. In the past, poets like Wang Wei were only read by the elite who could afford the books but, after woodblock printing became more commonplace, anyone with a little disposable income could buy a book. Those who did not have the money could find books at the library.This practice led to a dramatic increase in literacy in China and authors, essayists, historians, scientists, medical professionals, poets, philosophers, and every other kind of writer found they could reach wider and wider audiences with their work.
LITERARY WORKS
Chinese literary works are too numerous to list here, spanning some 2,000 years, but among the most influential are those of the Tang Dynasty. The greatest poet of the Tang Dynasty is Li Po (also known as Li Bai, 701-762 CE) whose work was so popular in his time that it was considered one of the Three Wonders of the World (along with Pei Min's ability with a sword and Zhang Xu's beautiful calligraphy). Thanks to the woodblock printing process, his work was widely distributed throughout China and over 1,000 of his poems have survived to the present day. His close friend, Du Fu (also known as Tu Fu, 712-770 CE) was equally popular, and the two are regarded as the most important poets of the Tang Dynasty followed by Bai Juyi (also known as Bo Juyi, 772-846 CE). Bai Juyi's poem "Song of Everlasting Sorrow", is a romanticized version of the tragic love affair of emperor Xuanzong (712-756 CE) and Lady Yang. It became so popular that it entered the public school curriculum and students had to memorize in part or in full to pass exams. This poem is still required reading in Chinese schools in the present day.
Li Po Writing Poetry
Older works of philosophers such as Confucius, Mo Ti, Mencius, Lao-Tzu, Teng Shih and others from the Hundred Schools of Thought were also widely available from the Tang Dynasty onward. The most important of these philosophical writings, as far as Chinese culture are concerned, are the texts known as The Five Classics and The Four Books ( The I-Ching, The Classics of Poetry, The Classics of Rites, The Classics of History, The Spring and Autumn Annals, The Analects of Confucius, The Works of Mencius, The Doctrine of the Mean, and The Great Book of Learning). Although these works are not 'literature' in an artistic sense, they were central to Chinese education and remain just as important in China today as they were in the past. These nine works provided a cultural standard which people were expected to meet if they wanted to work for the government, ensured a candidate was literate and qualified as one of the elite. On an aesthetic level, though, they were considered personally enriching and were read for self-improvement and simple enjoyment. The philosophers and poets of China created many important artistic works which are still admired today and which contributed to and complemented the works of literary prose which were also produced.
The greatest prose master of the Tang was Han Yu (768-824 CE), considered 'the Shakespeare of China', whose style influenced every writer who came after him. Han Yu is known as an essayist who advocated Confucian values and so is also regarded highly as a philosophical writer. Shen Kuo (1031-1095 CE) was a polymath of the Sung Dynasty (960-1234 CE), whose writings on scientific subjects were extremely influential. Between the 14th-18th centuries CE literary fiction reached its heights through the Four Great Classic Novels of China: Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong (1280-1360 CE), Water Margin by Shi Nai'an (1296-1372 CE), Journey to the West by Wu Cheng'en (1500-1582 CE), and Dream of Red Mansions by Cao Xueqin (1715-1764 CE). Of these four, Dream of Red Mansions is considered the greatest literary masterpiece in Chinese writing because of its style, theme, and scope. It was published in 1791 CE and has remained a best-seller in China ever since.
LEGACY
These works were read throughout China and those who could not read themselves would hear them read. Chinese script was adopted by Japan, Korea, Vietnam, became the basis for Khitan Script (Mongolia), Jurchen Script (of the Manchus), and the Yi Script of the indigenous people of Yunnan Province which differs from traditional Chinese script. Chinese literary works, along with The Five Classics and The Five Books, became the basis for the development of all these scripts and so Chinese thought significantly impacted these cultures. Books like Dream of Red Mansions or Romance of the Three Kingdoms became as popular in other cultures as they were in China and influenced themes of those cultures' literary works.
Scholar Harold M. Tanner writes how, through Chinese literature, especially poetry, we are invited into the world of the writer and experience life directly as "we read their descriptions of home and family, landscapes, palaces, and war, and as they speak out on behalf of the poor and the oppressed (187)". Ancient Chinese literary works are just as moving and impressive today as when they were written because, like any great literature, they tell us what we need to know about ourselves and the world we live in. Through their work, the great Chinese masters wrote about their personal experiences in life and, in doing so, gave expression to the whole human experience.
Chinese Writing › Origins
Definition and Origins
Ancient Chinese writing evolved from the practice of divination during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE). Some theories suggest that images and markings on pottery shards found at Ban Po Village are evidence of an early writing system but this claim has been challenged repeatedly. Ban Po was occupied c. 4500-3750 BCE and was discovered by workmen digging a foundation for a factory in 1953 CE. Ceramic shards uncovered at the site have been classified into 27 distinct categories of image/sign which suggest to some scholars an early language. The opposing view is that these images are simply marks of ownership, comparable to making an X on a document to sign one's name, and cannot be considered an actual written language. The majority of recent scholarship agrees that writing evolved during the Shang Dynasty and developed from there.Scholar Patricia Buckley Ebrey expresses the consensus on this:
Exactly when writing was first used in China is not known since most writing would have been done on perishable materials like wood, bamboo, or silk. Symbols or emblems inscribed on late neolithic pots may be early forms of Chinese graphs. Early Shang bronzes sometimes have similar symbols cast into them. The earliest evidence of full sentences is found on the oracle bones of the late Shang. From these divinatory inscriptions, there can be no doubt that the Shang used a language directly ancestral to modern Chinese and moreover used a written script that evolved into the standard Chinese logographic writing system still in use today (26-27).
Once writing was developed by the Chinese it had a significant impact on the culture. Ebrey writes, "In China, as elsewhere, writing once adopted has profound effects on social and cultural processes(26)." The bureaucracy of China came to rely on written records and, culturally, expression of personal thoughts and feelings was made possible through poetry and prose, creating some of the greatest literature in the world.
ORACLE BONES
Oracle bones were the shoulder blades of oxen or the plastrons of turtles, scraped and cleaned, which were inscribed with marks for divination. The ancient Chinese were very concerned with knowing the future and would go to diviners for guidance on making decisions. The diviner (someone who today would be called a 'psychic' or a 'medium') would carve the person's question into the bone and then heat it with a hot poker or place it near a fire. When the bone would crack, the lines formed would be interpreted to answer the person's question.
Oracle Bone
An example of this might be whether the king should go hunting on a certain day. The diviner would carve the name of the king asking the question and the date it was asked. They would then carve the topic of the question (Hunting) and the specific question (Should king ___ go hunting tomorrow). The bone would then be heated, crack, and interpreted. Afterward, the prognostication would be inscribed (Yes, the king should go hunting tomorrow) and, later, the verification that the prediction was correct (King went hunting and was successful). Oracle bones were consulted by everyone in the Shang period from the lowest class to the highest.
Oracle bones continued in use through the Zhou Dynasty (1046-226 BCE) when they were replaced by another form of divination known as the I-Ching (The Book of Changes) which relied on a written text of hexagrams to interpret the meaning of a pattern made by the questioner throwing yarrow sticks onto a table. With both oracle bones and the I-Ching, the spirits of one's ancestors were thought to be influencing the divination and communicating directly with the diviner.
EVOLUTION OF SCRIPT
From these early beginnings, Chinese script evolved. These scripts were:
Jiaguwen - the earliest form of writing on Oracle bones used c. 1600-1000 BCE. This script was pictographic, meaning the inscription represented an object linked to a concept. Example: if one wanted to write "Should the king go hunting tomorrow?"one would carve an image of the king with his bow and sunrise.
Dazhuan - known as Greater Seal script, developed c. 1000-700 BCE. This was also a pictographic script but had many more characters and was more refined. The images were inscribed on bronze and probably wood.
XIAOZHUAN, KNOWN AS LESSER SEAL SCRIPT, DEVELOPED C. 700 BCE AND IS STILL IN USE TODAY.
Xiaozhuan - known as Lesser Seal script, developed c. 700 BCE and is still in use today. This script was less pictographic and more logographic, meaning the symbols represented concepts themselves, not objects. Example: if one now wanted to write "Should the king go hunting tomorrow?" one would inscribe the image for the king and the sign which represented 'hunting' and 'tomorrow'.
Lishu - known as Clerky Script, was developed c. 500 BCE and used during the Qin Dynasty (221 - 206 BCE) and Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE) extensively. Lishu grew out of the need for complete documentation of government affairs and, as the name indicates, was used by clerks in their work in governmental bureaucracy. Sentences were written on bamboo scrolls tied together with string. When one reads about emperor Shi Huangti (259-210 BCE) of the Qin Dynasty burning books, these are the kinds of books he destroyed. Paper was not invented until the Han Dynasty in 105 CE.
In addition to these scripts there also developed the cursive scripts used in poetry and calligraphy. These are: Kaishu(Standard Script) Xingshu (Running Script), and Caoshu (Grass Script). Caoshu developed during the Qin Dynasty while Kaishu and Xing during the Han period.
LEGACY
As one can see, Chinese writing developed from pictures of objects which represented concepts to signs representing the concepts themselves. This development changed Chinese society and culture dramatically and also affected the way it would develop in the future. Ebrey explains:
It is essentially accidental that the Shang developed a logographic script rather than a phonetic script like most of those that became dominant elsewhere in Eurasia. This accident, however, had momentous consequences for the way Chinese civilization developed. It shaped the nature of the elite: the difficulty of mastering this script made those expert in it an elite possessed of rare but essential skills (28).
On the positive side, this meant that as Chinese writing became more and more a part of Chinese trade, the culture spread to neighboring regions. As Ebrey notes:
Because the Chinese logographic script did not change to reflect differences in pronunciation, the literate elite easily identified with others whose writings they could read, including predecessors who lived many centuries earlier and contemporaries whose spoken languages they could not comprehend. Just as crucially, this script also affected the processes of cultural expansion and assimilation. People on the fringes of Chinese culture who learned to read Chinese for pragmatic reasons of advancing or defending their interests were more effectively drawn into Chinese culture than they would have been if China had had a phonetic script. Reading and writing for them could not be easily detached from the body of Chinese texts imbued with Chinese values, making it difficult for them to use their literacy to articulate the vision of a local population defined in opposition to China (28).
The logographic script made a much more dramatic impression on readers than a phonetic script because people were not just reading words on a page but absorbing concepts directly as they read. On the negative side, the creation of a literate elite meant class divisions where those who could read and write were considered more valuable members of society than those who could not. This class distinction characterized Chinese society and history up until 1949 CE when Mao Tse Tung established the People's Republic of China largely in an effort to remedy social inequality.
Chinese script was adopted by Japan, Korea, Vietnam, became the basis for Khitan Script (Mongolia), Jurchen Script (of the Manchus), and the Yi Script of the indigenous people of Yunnan Province which differs from traditional Chinese script. It further influenced other nations of the region as seen in the Tangut Script of Tibet. Script enabled the Chinese, and then those of other nations, not only to communicate and keep records but also to create some of the most memorable works in world literature.
The Admonitions of Ipuwer › Origins
Ancient Civilizations
The Admonitions of Ipuwer (also known as The Papyrus Ipuwer and The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage ) is a literary text dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (2040-1782 BCE). The only extant copy of the work, preserved on the Papyrus Leiden 344, dates to the New Kingdom (c. 1570-1069 BCE). The manuscript is considered the last extant example of the 'national disaster' genre so popular in the Middle Kingdom in which chaos reigns and order has been forgotten, traditional roles and respect for that order are discarded, and death and destruction are imminent. Among the various works designated as Didactic Literature, The Admonitions of Ipuwer stands as the most rigorous piece contrasting order and chaos and advocating for the importance of a strong central government to maintain order and preserve peace.
Ipuwer Papyrus
DIDACTIC LITERATURE IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Didactic literature, by definition, teaches a reader an important lesson. The didactic writings of the Middle Kingdom routinely stressed the theme of order vs. chaos because they were playing off the memory of the First Intermediate Period of Egypt(2181-2040 BCE) which preceded it when there was no central government and regional governors maintained their own rules and values. Although the scribes of the Middle Kingdom routinely characterized this period as disastrous, it was actually no such thing. These writings of the Middle Kingdom were often classified by the Egyptians as Wisdom Literature in that they instructed an audience in important cultural values based on the structure of the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613 - c. 2181 BCE). These works were often given the title of Instructions or Admonitions in that they feature a father's advice to a son, a king's advice to his successor (also son), or a sage's advice/warning to his king. Egyptologist Miriam Lichtheim writes:
[These works] formulate and ponder problems of life and death and seek solutions. Egypt and Mesopotamiawere the earliest practitioners of this class of writings, to which the name "Wisdom Literature" has been given.Their example contributed significantly to the subsequent flowering of the genre among the Hebrews. (134)
The influence of Egyptian wisdom literature on the scribes who wrote the books which would later comprise the Bible is evident. The Admonitions of Ipuwer and other texts resonate with the same kinds of concepts one finds in the biblical books of Ecclesiastes, Proverbs, Psalms, and the Song of Songs, as well as works not classified as 'wisdom literature' such as Lamentations, Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Job, among others. In many of these biblical narratives, one finds passages lamenting a time of order and peace contrasted with a present period of disorder, chaos, and misery phrased in similar forms.
Although this theme of a 'golden age' in which one was perfectly happy contrasted with a present dark age is common in the literature of many cultures throughout time, in this case, it is entirely possible that these Egyptian texts directly influenced the Hebrew works. The Book of Exodus, in fact, with its emphasis on Egyptian cruelty toward the Hebrew slaves, could be seen as a literary 'divorce' from the culture which inspired some of the greatest works which eventually found a place in the Bible.
THE NATURE OF EGYPTIAN WISDOM TEXTS
The theme of instruction in wisdom found expression through a number of works. Among these, besides The Admonitions of Ipuwer, are the Prophecies of Neferti, The Complaints of Khakheperre- sonb , The Dispute Between a Man and his Ba, The Eloquent Peasant, The Instruction of King Amenemhat for his Son Senruset I, and The Satire of the Trades. The Admonitionsis most similar to the Prophecies of Neferti and The Complaints of Khakheperre- sonb in evoking a past time of greatness which is now lost. The Complaints sums up the problem in one line: "Changes take place, it is not like last year" (Lichtheim, 147). The past is glorified and the present condemned in most of these works as the authors claim the old ways have been forgotten and this has led to chaos on a national scale.
THE ADMONITIONS NEATLY FITS WITH THE 'NATIONAL DISTRESS' GENRE OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM BUT AMPLIFIES THE MISERIES THIS GENRE REGULARLY MADE A POINT OF.
The Admonition of Ipuwer text is difficult to date precisely because the only copy comes from the New Kingdom of Egypt, but it is believed to have been composed somewhat later in the Middle Kingdom than these others. The author seems to have believed that far more examples of depravity and mayhem were necessary to make the point than earlier, more concise works and repeats them urgently throughout the 17 pages of the manuscript. The Admonitions neatly fits with the 'national distress' genre of the Middle Kingdom but amplifies the miseries this genre regularly made a point of. This urgent tone to the text, combined with when it was first translated, led a number of scholars in the 20th century CE to conclude that it was historical reportage, not literature; this theory, however, has been discarded.
HISTORY OF INTERPRETATION OF THE ADMONITIONS
The text received its first interpretation and publication by Egyptologist AH Gardiner in 1909 CE. This was a very interesting time for archaeology in that, beginning in the mid-19th century CE, more and more European archaeologists were working in the Near East at the behest of institutions looking for historical, physical evidence to corroborate the stories of the Bible. What these scholars found instead was the complete opposite of what they had expected. Prior to this time, the Bible was considered the oldest book in the world comprised of wholly original literature. The work done by scholars c. 1840 - c. 1900 CE brought to light the literature of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt and changed the way the Bible and world history were understood.
The narratives of the Bible, so long thought to have been penned by God or God-inspired scribes, were now understood to have precedent in earlier works of other cultures. The story of the Fall of Man, the Great Flood, the existential observations of Ecclesiastes, the concept of a dying and reviving god whose resurrection brings life to the world, all of these were recorded before the Hebrew scribes began writing the books which would eventually become the Bible. Even so, Egyptology and Near East studies still had a long way to go before it matured and many texts were misinterpreted by these early scholars.
Book of Exodus
C. 1900 CE, when Gardiner was working with Admonitions, the literature of the Middle Kingdom, describing the time of the preceding the First Intermediate Period of Egypt was interpreted as historically accurate. The First Intermediate Period was commonly understood as a time of lawless chaos following the collapse of the Old Kingdom. Actually, the First Intermediate Period was a time of great cultural progress and individual growth of the various regions of Egypt; it simply was lacking a strong central government. To the scribes of the Middle Kingdom, however, this was a serious problem which they needed to warn their countrymen against. According to traditional belief, the king was the mediator between the gods and the people and a country without a strong king was a land cut off from the deities which nourished and gave it life. The Prophecies of Nefertiexplicitly bases its entire premise on this belief while the Complaints only suggests it and the Admonitions shouts it loudly.
Scholars working on these texts in the 19th and 20th centuries CE were operating from the old paradigm of the Bible-as-history, and so, except in cases of texts concerning obvious mythological themes and characters, literary works were taken as historical. According to Lichtheim, it was not until 1929 CE that The Admonitions of Ipuwer was first recognized as literature by the scholar S. Luria who "pointed out the fictional, mythologic-messianic nature of these works and fixed cliches through which the theme of 'social chaos' was expressed" (150). Although, again according to Lichtheim, Luria's work did not receive a great deal of attention at the time, other scholars later came to the same conclusion that the Admonitions is Middle Kingdom literature, not history.
This understanding of the text as genre literature was not widely known by those outside the field of Egyptology; Gardiner's early work, however, had received considerable attention from academics and non-academics alike . The Admonitions of Ipuwer was again, wrongly, interpreted as history most notably by the independent scholar Velikovsky in the 1950's/1960's CE, who used the text as support for his claim of planetary influence causing catastrophic events in world history. Velikovsky's theories have been repeatedly debunked and refuted by scholars in a number of different fields, but this has done little to correct the misunderstanding in the popular imagination.
As recently as 2014 CE, the documentary Patterns of Evidence: Exodus claimed The Admonitions of Ipuwer was historical reportage, an Egyptian view of the events given in the biblical Book of Exodus, proving that work historically accurate. The companion book of the same name reasserts these claims as does the work by David Rohl, whose theories infuse and support the film and book, Exodus: Myth or History? which perpetuates the misunderstanding. However well-meaning these works may - or may not - be, they are intellectually and historically dishonest in how they represent the evidence they claim to be presenting impartially. Those who represent opposing views are dismissed as either atheists or blinded by 'mainstream' scholarship while literary and physical evidence is manipulated to prove the claims of the producers/writers.
Through the popularity of Rohl's works, this misunderstanding of the nature of the Egyptian text is presently perpetuated, even though there is no sound basis for it in the work itself. One can only accept The Admonitions of Ipuwer as history if one has little or no knowledge of Egyptian history and literature. As Rohl is an Egyptologist, one might wonder why he would advocate for an understanding of the work so completely at odds with accepted scholarship. The answer becomes fairly obvious if one is aware of Rohl's repeated calls for a revision of Egyptian chronology, his 'fringe' status among accepted scholars, and his insistence on the historical truth of biblical narratives such as the Book of Exodus; his perpetuation of a misinterpretation of the text supports the claims he makes in books which have sold well and have conferred on him a degree of celebrity.
THE ADMONITIONS OF IPUWER: THE TEXT
If one is acquainted with Middle Kingdom 'national distress' literature, it is abundantly clear that The Admonitions of Ipuwerrests comfortably within the genre. The translation which follows is by the scholar Andre Dollinger following the standard translation by RO Faulkner of 1965 CE. Brackets and ellipses indicate missing or unclear text which is sometimes suggested.Those familiar with Rohl's work will recognize that what is usually presented is 'prooftexted' snippets of the piece which exclude portions which might contradict certain claims:
[...] The door [keepers] say: "Let us go and plunder."
The confectioners [...].
The washerman refuses to carry his load [...]
The bird [catchers] have drawn up in line of battle [... the inhabitants] of the Delta carry shields.
The brewers [...] sad.
A man regards his son as his enemy. Confusion [...] another. Come and conquer ; judge [...] what was ordained for you in the time of Horus, in the age [of the Ennead...]. The virtuous man goes in mourning because of what has happened in the land [...] goes [...] the tribes of the desert have become Egyptians everywhere.
Indeed, the face is pale; [...] what the ancestors foretold has arrived at [fruition...] the land is full of confederates, and a man goes to plough with his shield.
Indeed, the meek say: ["He who is... of] face is as a well-born man."
Indeed, [the face] is pale; the bowman is ready, wrongdoing is everywhere, and there is no man of yesterday.
Indeed, the plunderer [...] everywhere, and the servant takes what he finds.
Indeed, the Nile overflows, yet none plough for it. Everyone says: "We do not know what will happen throughout the land."
Indeed, the women are barren and none conceive. Khnum fashions (men) no more because of the condition of the land.Indeed, poor men have become owners of wealth, and he who could not make sandals for himself is now a possessor of riches.
Indeed, men's slaves, their hearts are sad, and magistrates do not fraternize with their people when they shout.
Indeed, [hearts] are violent, pestilence is throughout the land, blood is everywhere, death is not lacking, and the mummy-cloth speaks even before one comes near it.Indeed, many dead are buried in the river; the stream is a sepulcher and the place of embalmment has become a stream.
Indeed, noblemen are in distress, while the poor man is full of joy. Every town says: "Let us suppress the powerful among us."
Indeed, men are like ibises. Squalor is throughout the land, and there are none indeed whose clothes are white in these times.
Indeed, the land turns around as does a potter's wheel; the robber is a possessor of riches and [the rich man is become] a plunderer.
Indeed, trusty servants are [...]; the poor man [complains]: "How terrible! What am I to do?"Indeed, the river is blood, yet men drink of it. Men shrink from human beings and thirst after water.
Indeed, gates, columns and walls are burnt up, while the hall of the palace stands firm and endures.
Indeed, the ship of [the southerners] has broken up; towns are destroyed and Upper Egypt has become an empty waste.
Indeed, crocodiles [are glutted] with the fish they have taken, for men go to them of their own accord; it is the destruction of the land. Men say: "Do not walk here; behold, it is a net." Behold, men tread [the water] like fishes, and the frightened man cannot distinguish it because of terror.
Indeed, men are few, and he who places his brother in the ground is everywhere. When the wise man speaks, [he flees without delay].
Indeed, the well-born man [...] through lack of recognition, and the child of his lady has become the son of his maidservant.Indeed, the desert is throughout the land, the nomes are laid waste, and barbarians from abroad have come to Egypt.
Indeed, men arrive [...] and indeed, there are no Egyptians anywhere.
Indeed, gold and lapis lazuli, silver and turquoise, carnelian and amethyst, Ibhet-stone and [...] are strung on the necks of maidservants. Good things are throughout the land, (yet) housewives say: "Oh that we had something to eat!"
Indeed, [...] noblewomen. Their bodies are in sad plight by reason of their rags, and their hearts sink when greeting [one another]. Indeed, chests of ebony are broken up, and precious ssnDm-wood is cleft asunder in beds [...].Indeed, the builders [of pyramids have become] cultivators, and those who were in the sacred bark are now yoked [to it]. None shall indeed sail northward to Byblos today; what shall we do for cedar trees for our mummies, and with the produce of which priests are buried and with the oil of which [chiefs] are embalmed as far as Keftiu? They come no more; gold is lacking [...] and materials for every kind of craft have come to an end.The [...] of the palace is despoiled. How often do people of the oases come with their festival spices, mats, and skins, with fresh rdmt-plants, grease of birds... ?Indeed, Elephantine and Thinis [...] of Upper Egypt, (but) without paying taxes owing to civil strife. Lacking are grain, charcoal, irtyw-fruit, m'w-wood, nwt-wood, and brushwood. The work of craftsmen and [...] are the profit of the palace. To what purpose is a treasury without its revenues? Happy indeed is the heart of the king when truth comes to him! And every foreign land [comes]! That is our fate and that is our happiness! What can we do about it? All is ruin!
Indeed, laughter is perished and is [no longer] made; it is groaning that is throughout the land, mingled with complaints.Indeed, every dead person is as a well-born man. Those who were Egyptians [have become] foreigners and are thrust aside.
Indeed, hair [has fallen out] for everybody, and the man of rank can no longer be distinguished from him who is nobody.
Indeed, [...] because of noise; noise is not [...] in years of noise, and there is no end [of] noise.
Indeed, great and small [say]: "I wish I might die." Little children say: "He should not have caused [me] to live."
Indeed, the children of princes are dashed against walls, and the children of the neck are laid out on the high ground.
Indeed, those who were in the place of embalmment are laid out on the high ground, and the secrets of the embalmers are thrown down because of it.
Indeed, that has perished which yesterday was seen, and the land is left over to its weakness like the cutting of flax.
Indeed, the Delta in its entirety will not be hidden, and Lower Egypt puts trust in trodden roads. What can one do? No [...] exist anywhere, and men say: "Perdition to the secret place!" Behold, it is in the hands of those who do not know it like those who know it. The desert dwellers are skilled in the crafts of the Delta.Indeed, citizens are put to the corn-rubbers, and those who used to don fine linen are beaten with... Those who used never to see the day have gone out unhindered; those who were on their husbands' beds, let them lie on rafts. I say: "It is too heavy for me," concerning rafts bearing myrrh. Load them with vessels filled with [... Let] them know the palanquin. As for the butler, he is ruined. There are no remedies for it; noblewomen suffer like maidservants, minstrels are at the looms within the weaving-rooms, and what they sing to the Songstress-goddess is mourning. Talkers [...] corn-rubbers.
Indeed, all female slaves are free with their tongues, and when their mistress speaks, it is irksome to the maidservants.
Indeed, trees are felled and branches are stripped off.I have separated him and his household slaves, and men will say when they hear it: "Cakes are lacking for most children; there is no food [...]. What is the taste of it like today?"
Indeed, magnates are hungry and perishing, followers are followed [...] because of complaints.
Indeed, the hot-tempered man says: "If I knew where God is, then I would serve Him."
Indeed, [Right] pervades the land in name, but what men do in trusting to it is Wrong.
Indeed, runners are fighting over the spoil [of] the robber, and all his property is carried off.
Indeed, all animals, their hearts weep; cattle moan because of the state of the land.
Indeed, the children of princes are dashed against walls, and the children of the neck are laid out on the high ground. Khnum groans because of his weariness.
Indeed, terror kills; the frightened man opposes what is done against your enemies. Moreover, the few are pleased, while the rest are [...]. Is it by following the crocodile and cleaving it asunder? Is it by slaying the lion roasted on the fire? [Is it] by sprinkling for Ptah and taking [...]? Why do you give to him? There is no reaching him. It is misery which you give to him.
Indeed, slaves [...] throughout the land, and the strong man sends to everyone; a man strikes his maternal brother. What is it that has been done? I speak to a ruined man.
Indeed, the ways are [...], the roads are watched; men sit in the bushes until the benighted traveler comes in order to plunder his burden, and what is upon him is taken away. He is belabored with blows of a stick and murdered.
Indeed, that has perished which yesterday was seen, and the land is left over to its weakness like the cutting of flax, commoners coming and going in dissolution [...]Would that there were an end of men, without conception, without birth! Then would the land be quiet from noise and tumult be no more.
Indeed, [men eat] herbage and wash [it] down with water; neither fruit nor herbage can be found [for] the birds, and [...] is taken away from the mouth of the pig. No face is bright which you have [...] for me through hunger.
Indeed, everywhere barley has perished and men are stripped of clothes, spice, and oil; everyone says: "There is none." The storehouse is empty and its keeper is stretched on the ground; a happy state of affairs!
Would that I had raised my voice at that moment, that it might have saved me from the pain in which I am.
Indeed, the private council-chamber, its writings are taken away and the mysteries which were [in it] are laid bare.
Indeed, magic spells are divulged; smw- and shnw-spells are frustrated because they are remembered by men.
Indeed, public offices are opened and their inventories are taken away; the serf has become an owner of serfs.
Indeed, [scribes] are killed and their writings are taken away. Woe is me because of the misery of this time!
Indeed, the writings of the scribes of the cadaster are destroyed, and the corn of Egypt is common property.
Indeed, the laws of the council chamber are thrown out; indeed, men walk on them in public places, and poor men break them up in the streets.
Indeed, the poor man has attained to the state of the Nine Gods, and the erstwhile procedure of the House of the Thirtyis divulged.
Indeed, the great council-chamber is a popular resort, and poor men come and go to the Great Mansions.
Indeed, the children of magnates are ejected into the streets; the wise man agrees and the fool says "no," and it is pleasing in the sight of him who knows nothing about it.
De hecho, los que estaban en el lugar del embalsamamiento están establecidos en las tierras altas, y los secretos de los embalsamadores son arrojados a causa de ello.He aquí, el fuego ha subido a lo alto, y su fuego se extiende contra los enemigos de la tierra.
He aquí, se han hecho cosas que no han sucedido durante mucho tiempo; el rey ha sido depuesto por la chusma.
He aquí, el que fue sepultado como halcón [está desprovisto] de ataduras, y lo que ocultó la pirámide se ha vuelto vacío.
He aquí, ha sucedido que la tierra ha sido privada de la realeza por unos pocos hombres sin ley.
He aquí, los hombres han caído en rebelión contra los Uraeus, los [...] de Re, incluso ella que hace el contenido de Two Lands.
He aquí, el secreto de la tierra cuyos límites eran desconocidos se divulga, y la Residencia se derriba en un momento.
He aquí, Egipto ha caído para derramar agua, y el que derramó agua en la tierra se llevó al hombre fuerte en la miseria.
He aquí, la Serpiente es sacada de su agujero, y los secretos de los reyes del Alto y Bajo Egipto son divulgados.
Mira, la Residencia teme por necesidad, y [los hombres andan] sin oposición para provocar contiendas.
Mira, la tierra se ha anudado con confederaciones, y el cobarde toma las propiedades del valiente.
He aquí, la Serpiente [...] los muertos: el que no pudo hacerse un sarcófago es ahora poseedor de una tumba.
He aquí, los poseedores de las tumbas son expulsados a las tierras altas, mientras que el que no pudo hacer un ataúd para sí mismo es ahora [el poseedor] de un tesoro.
He aquí, esto ha sucedido [a] los hombres; el que no pudo construir una habitación para él ahora es un poseedor de muros.
He aquí, los magistrados de la tierra son expulsados por toda la tierra: [...] son expulsados de los palaciosHe aquí, las damas nobles ahora están en balsas, y los magnates están en el establecimiento de trabajo, mientras que el que no podía dormir ni siquiera en las paredes ahora es el poseedor de una cama.
He aquí, el poseedor de la riqueza ahora pasa la noche sediento, mientras que el que una vez le pidió sus escorias es ahora el poseedor de cuencos desbordantes.
He aquí, los poseedores de túnicas están ahora en harapos, mientras que el que no podía tejer para sí ahora es poseedor de lino fino.
He aquí, el que no podía construir un bote para sí mismo es ahora el poseedor de una flota; su antiguo dueño los mira, pero no son suyos.
He aquí, el que no tenía sombra es ahora el poseedor de la sombra, mientras que los antiguos poseedores de la sombra están ahora en pleno estallido de la tormenta.
He aquí, el que no conocía la liraes ahora el poseedor de un arpa, mientras que el que nunca cantó para sí mismo alardea de la diosa Cantora.
He aquí, los que poseían vasijas de cobre [...] no se ha adornado ninguno de los frascosHe aquí, el que durmió sin esposa a través de la necesidad [encuentra] riquezas, mientras que el que nunca vio está parado haciendo el paro.
He aquí, el que no tenía ninguna propiedad ahora es poseedor de riquezas, y el magnate lo alaba.
He aquí, los pobres de la tierra se han enriquecido, y el [antiguo dueño] de la propiedad es aquel que no tiene nada.
He aquí, los sirvientes se han convertido en maestros de mayordomos, y el que una vez fue mensajero ahora envía a alguien más.
He aquí, el que no tenía pan ahora es dueño de un granero, y su almacén está provisto de los bienes de otro.
He aquí, aquel cuyo cabello se ha caído y que no tenía aceite ahora se ha convertido en poseedor de jarras de dulce mirra.
He aquí, la que no tenía caja ahora es dueña de un cofre, y la que tuvo que mirar su cara en el agua ahora es dueña de un espejo.
He aquí, [...].He aquí, un hombre está feliz comiendo su comida. Consume tus bienes con alegría y sin impedimentos, porque es bueno que un hombre coma su comida; Dios lo ordena para el que Él ha favorecido [...].
[He aquí, el que no sabía] su dios ahora le ofrece con incienso de otro [que no] es conocido [para él].
[He aquí,] grandes damas, que alguna vez poseyeron riquezas, ahora dan a sus hijos por camas.
He aquí, un hombre [a quien se le da] una mujer noble como esposa, su padre lo protege, y el que no [...] matarlo.
He aquí, los hijos de los magistrados son [... los terneros] de ganado [se entregan] a los saqueadores.He aquí, los sacerdotes transgreden con el ganado de los pobres [...].
He aquí, el que no podía masacrar por sí mismo ahora mata toros, y el que no sabía cómo tallar ahora ve [...].
He aquí, los sacerdotes transgreden con gansos, que se dan [a] los dioses en lugar de bueyes.
He aquí, sirvientas [...] ofrecen patos; mujeres nobles [...].
He aquí, mujeres de la nobleza huyen; los supervisores de [...] y sus [niños] son arrojados por miedo a la muerte.
[He aquí,] los jefes de la tierra huyen; no hay ningún propósito para ellos debido a la necesidad. El señor de [...].[He aquí,] aquellos que alguna vez tuvieron camas, ahora están en el suelo, mientras que aquél que alguna vez durmió en la miseria ahora se tiende una alfombra para sí mismo.He aquí, las mujeres de la nobleza pasan hambre, mientras que los sacerdotes están saciados con lo que les han preparado.
Mira, no hay oficinas en su lugar correcto, como una manada corriendo al azar sin un pastor.
He aquí, el ganado vagabundea y no hay nadie que los recoja, pero todos buscan para sí a los que están marcados con su nombre.
He aquí, un hombre es asesinado junto a su hermano, quien huye y lo abandona para salvar su propia piel.
He aquí, el que no tenía yugo de bueyes ahora es el dueño de una manada, y el que no pudo encontrar ningún labrador ahora es dueño de ganado.
He aquí, el que no tenía grano ahora es el dueño de los graneros, y el que tuvo que buscar maíz para sí mismo ahora es quien lo emite.
He aquí, el que no tenía dependientes ahora es dueño de siervos, y el que era [un magnate] ahora realiza sus propios recados.
He aquí, a los hombres fuertes de la tierra, la condición de la gente no se les informa [a ellos]. ¡Todo está en ruinas!
He aquí, ningún artesano trabaja, porque los enemigos de la tierra han empobrecido a sus artesanos.
[He aquí, el que una vez grabó] la cosecha ahora no sabe nada al respecto, mientras que el que nunca alabó [para sí mismo es ahora el dueño del maíz; la cosecha] tiene lugar pero no se informa. El escriba [se sienta en su oficina], pero sus manos [están inactivas] en él.
Destruido es [...] en ese momento, y un hombre mira [a su amigo como] un adversario. El hombre débil trae frescura [a lo que está caliente...] miedo [......]. Pobres hombres [... la tierra] no es brillante por eso.Destruido es [...] se les quita la comida [...a través de] miedo a su terror. El plebeyo suplica [...] messenger, pero no [...] hora. Él es capturado cargado de bienes y [todas sus propiedades] son quitadas. [...] los hombres pasan por su puerta [...] el exterior de la pared, un cobertizo y habitaciones con halcones. Es el hombre común el que estará vigilante, el día que se le ocurrió sin que él lo temiera. Los hombres corren debido a [...para] el templo de la cabeza, forzado a través de una tela tejida dentro de la casa. Lo que hacen son tiendas de campaña, como la gente del desierto.
Destruido es el hacer aquello para lo cual los hombres son enviados por servidores al servicio de sus amos; no tienen preparación.
He aquí, son cinco hombres, y dicen: "Ve por el camino que conoces, porque hemos llegado".
El Bajo Egipto llora; el almacén del rey es propiedad común de todos, y todo el palacio carece de ingresos. A ella pertenecen emmer y cebada, aves y peces; a ella pertenecen tela blanca y lino fino, cobre y aceite; a ella pertenecen alfombra y alfombra, [...] flores y trigo-gavilla y todos los buenos ingresos... Si el... en el palacio se retrasaron, los hombres estarían desprovistos [de...].
Destruye a los enemigos de la augusta Residencia, espléndido de magistrados [...] en él como [...]; de hecho, el Gobernador de la Ciudad no recibe escolta.
Destruye [a los enemigos de la Residencia augusta,] espléndido [...]. [Destruye a los enemigos de] la antigua Residencia de agosto, variedad de leyes [...]. [Destruye a los enemigos de] esa antigua augusta [Residencia...].
Destruye a los enemigos de esa antigua Residencia [...] ninguno puede soportar [...].
Destruye a los enemigos de esa antigua residencia augusta, variedad de oficinas; en efecto [...].
Recuerde sumergirse [...] el que tiene dolor cuando está enfermo en su cuerpo; muestra respeto [...] a causa de su dios que él puede guardar el enunciado [...] sus hijos que son testigos del surgimiento del diluvio.Remember to [......]... shrine, to fumigate with incense and to offer water in a jar in the early morning.
Remember [to bring] fat r-geese, trp-geese, and ducks and to offer god's offerings to the gods.
Remember to chew natron and to prepare white bread; a man [should do it] on the day of wetting the head.
Remember to erect flagstaffs and to carve offering stones, the priest cleansing the chapels and the temple being plastered (white) like milk; to make pleasant the odor of the horizon and to provide bread-offerings.
Remember to observe regulations, to fix dates correctly, and to remove him who enters on the priestly office in impurity of body, for that is doing it wrongfully, it is destruction of the heart [...] the day which precedes eternity, the months [...] years are known.
Remember to slaughter oxen [...].
Remember to go forth purged [...] who calls to you; to put r-geese on the fire [...] to open the jar [...] the shore of the waters [...] of women [...] clothing [......] to give praise... in order to appease you.
[...] lack of people; come [...] Re who commands [...] worshipping him [...] West until [...] are diminished [...].
Behold, why does he seek to fashion [men...]? The frightened man is not distinguished from the violent one.He brings coolness upon heat; men say: "He is the herdsman of mankind, and there is no evil in his heart."Though his herds are few, yet he spends a day to collect them, their hearts being on fire.
Would that he had perceived their nature in the first generation; then he would have imposed obstacles, he would have stretched out his arm against them, he would have destroyed their herds and their heritage. Men desire the giving of birth, but sadness supervenes, with needy people on all sides. So it is, and it will not pass away while the gods who are in the midst of it exist. Seed goes forth into mortal women, but none are found on the road.
Combat has gone forth, and he who should be a redresser of evils is one who commits them; neither do men act as pilot in their hour of duty. Where is he today? Is he asleep? Behold, his power is not seen.
If we had been fed, I would not have found you, I would not have been summoned in vain; "Aggression against it means pain of heart" is a saying on the lips of everyone. Today he who is afraid... a myriad of people; [...] did not see [...] against the enemies of [...] at his outer chamber; who enter the temple [...] weeping for him [...] that one who confounds what he has said... The land has not fallen [...] the statues are burned and their tombs destroyed [...] he sees the day of [...]. He who could not make for himself [...] between sky and ground is afraid of everybody.
... if he does it... what you dislike taking.
Authority, knowledge, and truth are with you, yet confusion is what you set throughout the land, also the noise of tumult. Behold, one deals harm to another, for men conform to what you have commanded. If three men travel on the road, they are found to be only two, for the many kill the few.Does a herdsman desire death? Then may you command reply to be made, because it means that one loves, another detests; it means that their existences are few everywhere; it means that you have acted so as to bring those things to pass. You have told lies, and the land is a weed which destroys men, and none can count on life.All these years are strife, and a man is murdered on his housetop even though he was vigilant in his gate lodge.Is he brave and saves himself? It means he will live.When men send a servant for humble folk, he goes on the road until he sees the flood; the road is washed out and he stands worried. What is on him is taken away, he is belabored with blows of a stick and wrongfully slain.Oh that you could taste a little of the misery of it! Then you would say [...] from someone else as a wall, over and above [...] hot... years... [...].
[It is indeed good] when ships fare upstream [......] robbing them.
It is indeed good [...]. [It is indeed] good when the net is drawn in and birds are tied up [...].
It is [indeed] good [...] dignities for them, and the roads are passable.
It is indeed good when the hands of men build pyramids, when ponds are dug and plantations of the trees of the gods are made.
It is indeed good when men are drunk; they drink myt and their hearts are happy.It is indeed good when shouting is in men's mouths, when the magnates of districts stand looking on at the shouting in their houses, clad in a cloak, cleansed in front and well-provided within.
It is indeed good when beds are prepared and the headrests of magistrates are safely secured. Every man's need is satisfied with a couch in the shade, and a door is now shut on him who once slept in the bushes.
It is indeed good when fine linen is spread out on New Year's Day [...] on the bank; when fine linen is spread out and cloaks are on the ground. The overseer of [...] the trees, the poor [......] in their midst like Asiatics [...].Men [...] the state thereof; they have come to an end of themselves; none can be found to stand up and protect themselves [...].
Everyone fights for his sister and saves his own skin. Is it Nubians? Then will we guard ourselves; warriors are made many in order to ward off foreigners. Is it Libyans? Then we will turn away. The Medjay are pleased with Egypt.How comes it that every man kills his brother? The troops whom we marshaled for ourselves have turned into foreigners and have taken to ravaging. What has come to pass through it is informing the Asiatics of the state of the land; all the desert folk are possessed with the fear of it. What the plebs have tasted [...] without giving Egypt over [to] the sand. It is strong [...] speak about you after years [...] devastate itself, it is the threshing floor which nourishes their houses [...] to nourish his children [...] said by the troops [......] fish [...] gum, lotus leaves [...] excess of food.What Ipuwer said when he addressed the Majesty of the Lord of All: [...] all herds. It means that ignorance of it is what is pleasing to the heart. You have done what was good in their hearts and you have nourished the people with it. They cover their faces through fear of the morrow.
That is how a man grows old before he dies, while his son is a lad of understanding; he does not open [his] mouth to speak to you, but you seize him in the doom of death [...] weep [...] go [...] after you, that the land may be [...] on every side.If men call to [...] weep [...] them, who break into the tombs and burn the statues [...] the corpses of the nobles [......] of directing work.
CONCLUSION
The Admonitions of Ipuwer stands as a complex and incomplete work of Egyptian literature. The beauty of the piece comes from the recognition of the reader who understands that one's present misfortunes are nothing new. People throughout time have experienced the same doubts, frustrations, and fears that one knows in the present day. This concept may not seem to offer very much comfort but there is consolation in knowing that what an individual was able to survive over two thousand years ago is equally survivable in the present. Times may have changed, but human beings have remained remarkably the same, for better and worse, throughout thousands of years.
To claim that literature, or scripture, must be 'true' to be relevant diminishes the worth of such work collectively. Moby Dick or The Divine Comedy or the Mahabharata are not factual works, but they are no less resonant for that. Further, it would be a disservice to any of these works, to any piece of literature, to use it in furthering one's personal agenda while disregarding its original purpose. The Admonitions of Ipuwer is a poignant expression of one writer's experience of life at a given time.Understood in this way, as literature, the work continues to speak through the centuries; misinterpreted and propagandized as history, the piece is meaningless because the 'history' it represents never happened.
LICENSE
Article based on information obtained from these sources:with permission from the Website Ancient History Encyclopedia
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