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Shinto › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
Shinto, meaning 'way of the gods,' is the oldest religion in Japan. The faith has neither a founder or prophets and there is no major text which outlines its principal beliefs. The resulting flexibility in definition may well be one of the reasons for Shinto's longevity, and it has, consequently, become so interwoven with Japanese culture in general that it is almost inseparable as an independent body of thinking. Thus, Shinto's key concepts of purity, harmony, family respect, and subordination of the individual before the group have become parts of the Japanese character whether the individual claims a religious affiliation or not.
ORIGINS
Unlike many other religions, Shinto has no recognised founder. The peoples of ancient Japan had long held animistic beliefs, worshipped divine ancestors and communicated with the spirit world via shamans; some elements of these beliefs were incorporated into the first recognised religion practised in Japan, Shinto, which began during the period of the Yayoi culture (c. 300 BCE - 300 CE). For example, certain natural phenomena and geographical features were given an attribution of divinity.Most obvious amongst these are the sun goddess Amaterasu and the wind god Susanoo. Rivers and mountains were especially important, none more so than Mt. Fuji, whose name derives from the Ainu name 'Fuchi,' the god of the volcano.
In Shinto gods, spirits, supernatural forces and essences are known as kami, and governing nature in all its forms, they are thought to inhabit places of particular natural beauty. In contrast, evil spirits or demons ( oni ) are mostly invisible with some envisioned as giants with horns and three eyes. Their power is usually only temporary, and they do not represent an inherent evil force. Ghosts are known as obake and require certain rituals to send away before they cause harm. Some spirits of dead animals can even possess humans, the worst being the fox, and these individuals must be exorcised by a priest.
THE KOJIKI & NIHON SHOKI ARE INVALUABLE 8TH-CENTURY CE ANTHOLOGIES OF SHINTO MYTHS & FOLKLORE.
KOJIKI & NIHON SHOKI
Two chronicles, commissioned by the imperial house (Emperor Temmu), are invaluable sources on Shinto mythology and beliefs. The Kojiki ('Record of Ancient Things') was compiled in 712 CE by the court scholar Ono Yasumaro, who drew on earlier sources, mostly genealogies of powerful clans. Then the Nihon Shoki ('Chronicle of Japan' and also known as the Nihongi ), written by a committee of court scholars, came in 720 CE which sought to redress the bias many clans thought the earlier work had given to the Yamato clan. These works, then, describe the 'Age of the Gods' when the world was created and they ruled before withdrawing to leave humanity to rule itself. They also gave the imperial line a direct descent from the gods - the original purpose of their composition - with the goddess Amaterasu's great-great-grandson Jimmu Tenno being the first emperor of Japan. Jimmu's traditional rule dates are 660-585 BCE, but he may well be a purely mythical figure. The NihonShoki, gives us our first textual instance of the word 'Shinto.'
Other important sources on early Shinto beliefs include the Manyoshu or 'Collection of 10,000 Leaves.' Written c. 760 CE, it is an anthology of poems covering all manner of topics not limited to religion. Another source is the many local chronicles, or Fudoki, which were commissioned in 713 CE to record local kami and associated legends in the various provinces. Finally, there is the Engishiki, a collection of 50 books compiled in the 10th century CE, covering the laws, rituals and prayers of Shinto.
Izanami & Izanagi
SHINTO GODS
As with many other ancient religions, the Shinto gods represent important astrological, geographical, and meteorological phenomena which are ever present and considered to affect daily life. These gods or ujigami, were associated with specific ancient clans or uji. Unusually, the sun and supreme deity is female, Amaterasu. Her brother is Susanoo, the god of the sea and storms. The creator gods are Izanami and Izanagi, who formed the islands of Japan. From Izanagi's left eye was born Amaterasu while from his nose sprang Susanoo. From the god's right eye Tsukuyomi, the moon god was born.
Susanoo and Amaterasu battled with each other following Susanoo's disgraceful behaviour. Amaterasu hid herself in a cave, darkening the world, and the gods could not tempt her out again despite offering fine jewels and a mirror. Finally, an erotic dancer caused such laughter that Amaterasu relented and came out to see the fuss. Susanoo turned over a new leaf, and, slaying an eight-headed dragon monster which was terrifying a farming family, he gave the sword he found in one of the creature's eight tails to Amaterasu in reconciliation. The dispute is taken by historians to represent the victory of the Yamato clan (represented by Amaterasu) over their rivals the Izumo (represented by Susanoo).
Susanoo returned to earth, the 'Reed Plain,' and married a daughter of the family he had saved from the monster Yamato no Orochi. Together they created a new race of gods who ruled the earth. Eventually, Amaterasu became concerned at the power these gods wielded, and so she sent her grandson Honinigi with certain symbols of sovereignty. These were the jewels and mirror the gods used to persuade Amaterasu out of her cave and the sword given to her by Susanoo, known later as Kusanagi. These three objects would become part of the imperial regalia of Japan. Another symbol carried by Honinigi was the magnificent magatama jewel which had special fertility powers.
Amaterasu Emerging From Exile
Honinigi landed on Mt. Takachio in Kyushu and made a deal with the most powerful of the gods, Okuninushi. For his loyalty to Amaterasu, Okuninushi would have the important role of protector of the future royal family. Later, the god would be regarded as the protector of all Japan.
Other important divine figures include Inari the rice god kami, seen as particularly charitable and important also to merchants, shopkeepers, and artisans. Inari's messenger is the fox, a popular figure in temple art. The ' Seven Lucky Gods ' or Shichifukujin are understandably popular, especially Daikokuten and Ebisu who represent wealth. Daikokuten is also considered the god of the kitchen and so is revered by cooks and chefs.
As described below, the Shinto and Buddhist faiths became closely intertwined in ancient Japan, and as a consequence, some Buddhist figures, the bosatsu or 'enlightened beings,' became popular kami with practitioners of Shinto. Three such figures are Amida (ruler of the Pure Land, ie heaven), Kannon (protector of children, women in childbirth, and dead souls) and Jizo (protector of those in pain and the souls of dead children). Another popular figure who crosses both faiths is Hachiman, a warrior god.
Shichifukujin
Finally, some mortals were given divine status after their deaths. Perhaps the most famous example is the scholar Sugawara no Michizane, aka Tenjin (845-903 CE), who was badly treated at court and exiled. A wave of devastating fires and plague shortly after his death hit the imperial capital which many took as a sign from the gods of their anger at Tenjin's unjust treatment. The impressive Kitano Tenmangu shrine at Kyoto was built in 947 CE in his honour, and Tenjin became the patron god of scholarship and education.
SHINTO & BUDDHISM
Buddhism had arrived in Japan in the 6th century BCE as part of the Sinification process of Japanese culture. Other elements not to be ignored here are the principles of Taoism and Confucianism which travelled across the waters just as Buddhist ideas did, especially the Confucian importance given to purity and harmony. These different belief systems were not necessarily in opposition, and both Buddhism and Shinto found enough mutual space to flourish side by side for many centuries in ancient Japan.
By the end of the Heian period (794-1185 CE), some Shinto kami spirits and Buddhist bodhisattvas were formally combined to create a single deity, thus creating Ryobu Shinto or 'Double Shinto.' As a result, sometimes images of Buddhist figures were incorporated into Shinto shrines and some Shinto shrines were managed by Buddhist monks. Of the two religions, Shinto was more concerned with life and birth, showed a more open attitude to women, and was much closer to the imperial house. The two religions would not be officially separated until the 19th century CE.
KEY CONCEPTS IN SHINTO
- Purity - both physical cleanliness and the avoidance of disruption, and spiritual purity.
- Physical well-being.
- Harmony ( wa ) exists in all things and must be maintained against imbalance.
- Procreation and fertility.
- Family and ancestral solidarity.
- Subordination of the individual to the group.
- Reverence of nature.
- All things have the potential for both good and bad.
- The soul ( tama ) of the dead can influence the living before it joins with the collective kami of its ancestors.
SHINTO SHRINES
Shinto shrines, or jinja, are the sacred locations of one or more kami, and there are some 80,000 in Japan. Certain natural features and mountains may also be considered shrines. Early shrines were merely rock altars on which offerings were presented. Then, buildings were constructed around such altars, often copying the architecture of thatched rice storehouses.From the Nara period in the 8th century CE temple design was influenced by Chinese architecture - upturned gables, and a prodigious use of red paint and decorative elements. Most shrines are built using Hinoki Cypress.
Shrines are easily identified by the presence of a torii or sacred gateway. The simplest are merely two upright posts with two longer crossbars and they symbolically separate the sacred space of the shrine from the external world. These gates are often festooned with gohei, twin paper or metal strips each ripped in four places and symbolising the kami 's presence. A shrine is managed by a head priest ( guji ) and priests ( kannushi ), or, in the case of smaller shrines, by a member of the shrine elders committee, the sodai. The local community supports the shrine financially. Finally, private households may have an ancestor shrine or kamidana which contains the names of the family members who have passed away and honours the ancestral kami.
Meoto-iwa or the Wedded Rocks
The typical Shinto shrine complex includes the following common features:
- The torii or sacred entrance gate.
- The honden or sanctuary which contains an image of the shrine's kami.
- The goshintai or sacred object inside the honden which is invested with the spirit of the kami.
- The sando or sacred path joining the torii and haiden.
- The haiden or oratory hall for ceremonies and worship.
- The heiden, a building for prayers and offerings.
- The saisenbako, a box for money offerings.
- The temizuya, a stone water trough for ritual cleansing.
- The kaguraden, a pavilion for ritual dancing and music.
- Larger shrines also have a large assembly hall and stalls where charms are sold by miko ('shrine virgins').
The most important Shinto shrine is the Ise Grand Shrine dedicated to Amaterasu with a secondary shrine to the harvest goddess Toyouke. Beginning in the 8th century CE, a tradition arose of rebuilding exactly the shrine of Amaterasu at Ise every 20 years to preserve its vitality. The broken-down material of the old temple is carefully stored and transported to other shrines where it is incorporated into their walls.
Kaguraden at the Ise Grand Shrine
The second most important shrine is that of Okuninushi at Izumo-taisha. These two are the oldest Shinto shrines in Japan.Besides the most famous shrines, every local community had and still has small shrines dedicated to their particular kamispirits. Even modern city buildings can have a small Shinto shrine on their roof. Some shrines are even portable. Known as mikoshi, they can be moved so that ceremonies can be held at places of great natural beauty such as waterfalls.
WORSHIP & FESTIVALS
The sanctity of shrines means that worshippers must cleanse themselves ( oharai ) before entering them, commonly by washing their hands and mouth with water. Then, when ready to enter, they make a small money offering, ring a small bell or clap their hands twice to alert the kami and then bow while saying their prayer. A final clap indicates the end of the prayer. It is also possible to request a priest offer one's prayer. Small offerings might include a bowl of sake (rice wine), rice, and vegetables. As many shrines are in places of natural beauty such as mountains, visiting these shrines is seen as an act of pilgrimage, Mt. Fuji being the most famous example. Believers sometimes wear Omamori, too, which are small embroidered sachets containing prayers to guarantee the person's well-being. As Shinto has no particular view on the afterlife, Shinto cemeteries are rare. Most followers are cremated and interred in Buddhist cemeteries.
The calendar is punctuated by religious festivals to honour particular kami. During these events, portable shrines may be taken to sites linked to a kami, or there are parades of colourful floats, and worshippers sometimes dress to impersonate certain divine figures. Amongst the most important annual festivals are the three-day Shogatsu Matsuri or Japanese New Year festival, the Obon Buddhist celebration of the dead returning to the ancestral home which includes many Shinto rituals, and the annual local matsuri when a shrine is transported around the local community to purify it and ensure its future well-being.
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Shi Huangdi › Who Was
Definition and Origins
Shi Huangdi (259-210 BCE, also known as Qin Shi Huang, Qin Shih Huandi, Shi Huangti or Shih Huan-ti) was the first emperor of a unified China. The name `Shi Huangdi' means `First Emperor' and is a title, not a proper name. The Qin Dynasty he founded (pronounced `Chin') gave its name to China and it was he who first initiated the building of the Great Walland construction of the Grand Canal. He was born Ying Zheng (also known as Zhao Zheng) of the State of Qin to a dancing girl named Zhao Ji and King Zhuangxiang of Qin. According to the historian Szuma Chien ( Sima Qian, 145/35-86 BCE) he was not actually Zhuangxiang' s son as his mother was already pregnant by Lu Buwei, the wealthy merchant who brought Zhao Ji to the king. As Szuma Chien was hostile to Shi Huangdi (as almost all later writers are) this claim has been often disputed.
RISE TO POWER
The young prince grew up at the Qin court and assumed the throne at age 12 or 13 following his father's death. Lu Buwei had risen in the court to become a minister and was made regent until Ying Zheng came of age. Again according to Szuma Chien, Lu Buwei became concerned that his son would recognize him as father and so lose the throne and he therefore distanced himself from Zhao Ji and encouraged another of the court, Lao Ai, to keep her company in his place. Lao Ai disguised himself as a palace eunuch and so came and went from the queen's chamber without suspicion. They had two sons together who were kept a secret from everyone at court except Lu Buwei. It occurred to Lu that one of these secret sons could better serve as King of Qin as he would then no longer have to worry about being exposed as the boy's father and so organized a coup. In 238 BCE, when the young king was away from court on travels, Lao Ai used the signet ring of Zhao Ji to mobilize a segment of the army in revolt. The king sent his army against Lao Ai's forces, defeated them, and had Lao executed by being torn apart.He then had Lao's entire family executed and placed Zhao Ji in seclusion under virtual house arrest. Lu Buwei committed suicide by poison. King Ying Zheng then named his close associate Li Siu as Prime Minister and ruled fully over the state of Qin.
SHI HUANGTI'S POLICIES ALLOWED FOR SUBSTANTIAL BUILDING PROJECTS & PROSPERITY.
VICTORY OVER THE WARRING STATES
The Warring States Period in China (476-221 BCE) was a time when the central government of the Zhou Dynasty, located at Luoyang, was no longer able to administrate effectively. The country had broken into seven separate states, Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao who continuously fought each other for supremacy. None of these states felt confident enough to wrest the Mandate of Heaven (the principle by which a ruler was legitimized) from the Zhou Dynasty as none were able to gain advantage over any other. Every state fought using the same tactics and strategies as the others and their aims were further hampered by the efforts of the pacifist philosopher Mo Ti, an able engineer, who seems to have provided each state with the same types of technology in order to neutralize any advantage. Although the state of Qin had a formidable army, iron weapons, and war chariots, King Zheng was unable to make any significant headway in victory over the other states.
Map of the Qin Empire
THE QIN EMPIRE
Having consolidated his empire, he turned his attention to administration and, with the help of Li Siu, “resolved to base Chinese society not, as heretofore, upon custom and local autonomy, but upon explicit law and a powerful central government” (Durant, 695). Initially, this government served the people in that Shi Huangdi's policies allowed for substantial building projects and prosperity. He,
...simplified official ceremonies, issued a state coinage, divided most of the feudal estates, prepared for the prosperity of China by establishing peasant proprietorship of the soil, and paved the way for unity by building great highways in every direction from his capital…Traveling in disguise and unarmed, he made note of abuses and disorders, and then issued unmistakable orders for their correction. He encouraged science and discouraged letters. (Durant, 696).
In all ways, the early Qin Dynasty worked to improve the lives of the people. The walls and fortifications which once enclosed the borders of the separate warring states were destroyed and the Great Wall was begun from their ruins, marking the northern boundary of the empire and protecting the land from marauding nomad tribes. In the south, the Lingqu Canal was built to aid in transport and in trade. Weapons of the defeated states were melted down and made into works of art.
Terracotta Army
This time of peace and prosperity, however, was short-lived. In 213 BCE Li Siu, having grown tired of hearing Confucian scholars criticize the regime by comparing it to the past dynasties of a `golden age', wrote, “I suggest that the official histories, with the exception of the Memoirs of Qin, be all burnt, and that those who attempt to hide [other works] be forced to bring them to the authorities to be burnt” (Durant, 697). Although life during The Warring States Period had been difficult, it had given rise to The Hundred Schools of Thought which comprised writings such as those of Confucius, Mo Ti, Mencius, Teng Shih, and Yang Zhu, among many, many others. Maintaining Shang Yang's strict philosophy of Legalism as the official policy of the government (which he had instituted at the start of his reign) Shi Huangti re-wrote the legal codes, suppressed freedom of speech, burned the books, and put to death all that refused to comply. This period of his reign is known as the `Burning of the Books and the Burying of Philosophers'. Durant writes, “The only permanent result was to lend an aroma of sanctity to the proscribed literature and to make Shi Huangti unpopular with the Chinese historians. For generations the people expressed their judgment of him by befouling his grave ” (697) and his own son, Fusu, criticized him in pointing out that Shi Huangti had copies in his private library of the same books he denied to the people.
SHI HUANGTI'S DEATH & THE FALL OF THE QIN
Shi Huangdi had been subject to assassination attempts in the past but now they increased. “He sat on his throne with a sword across his knees and let no man know in what room of his many palaces he would sleep” (Durant, 697). He became obsessed with death and sought elixirs of immortality. Failing in that, he set about to provide himself with as comfortable and secure an afterlife as the present one he was living. He decreed a palace be built as his tomb and commissioned artisans to create an army of over 8,000 terracotta warriors, fully armed, to protect him on the other side. The tomb was so extravagant that it was said to be a vision of heaven and, once built, it was buried and booby-trapped to prevent looting.
In 210 BCE, Shi Huangdi died on a trip to find the elixir of life which would grant him immortality. Some sources indicate that he died by poisoning after drinking what he thought was the elixir. Li Siu kept his death a secret until he could change the emperor's will to name his young, pliable son as heir, whom Li Siu thought he could manipulate. He had Shi Huangdi's body brought back to the capital concealed in a merchant caravan of dead fish in order to hide the smell of the decomposing corpse, changed the will, and then announced the passing of the First Emperor and the accession of his son, Hu-Hai, who took the name Qin Er Shi. The new king reigned poorly for three years and was famous for killing messengers who brought him bad news (marking his only legacy, the origin of the saying, `Don't kill the messenger'). During this time Li Siu was executed and his co-conspirator in raising Qin Er Shi to power, Zhao Gao, forced the young emperor to commit suicide. Following this coup, Qin Er Shi's nephew took the throne and had Zhao Gao executed. At this point, with the government in complete disarray and no competent heir to the throne, the country rose in rebellion. The Qin Dynasty collapsed and, after a period of civil war between the Han and the Chu, the Han Dynasty rose to rule China.
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