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Memphis › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
Memphis was one of the oldest and most important cities in ancient Egypt, located at the entrance to the Nile River Valley near the Giza plateau. It served as the capital of ancient Egypt and an important religious cult center. The original name of the city was Hiku-Ptah (also Hut-Ka-Ptah ) but it was later known as Inbu-Hedj which means 'White Walls' because it was built of mud brick and then painted white. By the time of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) it was known as Men-nefer ("the enduring and beautiful") which was translated by the Greeks into 'Memphis.' It was allegedly founded by the king Menes (c. 3150 BCE) who united the two lands of Egypt into a single country. The kings of the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (c. 3150-2613 BCE) and Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) ruled from Memphis, and even when it was not the capital, it remained an important commercial and cultural center.
The city features prominently throughout Egypt's history from the earliest records of the Dynastic Era to the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE) but no doubt existed earlier in the Predynastic Period in Egypt (C. 6000-3150 BCE). The city's location at the entrance to the Nile River Valley would have made it a natural place for an early settlement. From the earliest times through the end of ancient Egyptian history in the Roman period, Memphis played a role in the lives of the people. Kings ruled there, commerce took place in the markets, the great religious temples drew pilgrims and tourists, and some of the most famous kings of the country constructed their great monuments in or near the city. Alexander the Great had himself crowned pharaoh at Memphis, and the Rosetta Stone, the stele which unlocked the secret of Egyptian hieroglyphics, was originally issued from the city.
After the Romans annexed Egypt, Memphis began to decline. This was hastened by the rise of Christianity in the 4th century CE when people stopped visiting the old temples and shrines of the Egyptian gods. By the 7th century CE, following the Arab Invasion, Memphis was a ruin whose buildings were harvested for stone to lay the foundations for Cairo and for other projects.
NAME & SIGNIFICANCE
Ptah
Other inscriptions credit the building of Memphis to Menes' successor Hor-Aha who is said to have visited the site, not the city, and so admired it that he changed the course of the Nile River to make a wide plain for construction. Hor-Aha has been equated with Menes owing to various inscriptions, but 'Menes' seems to have been a title meaning 'He Who Endures,' not a personal name, and may have been passed down from the first king. The original builder of the city was probably Narmer, the king who unified Egypt, who was known as Menes. The legend of Hor-Aha's visit and diversion of the river is most likely a version of an earlier tale told of Menes (Narmer) around whom many miraculous legends would grow.
The city's early name of Hut-Ka-Ptah gave Egypt its Greek name for the country. The Egyptians themselves called their country Kemet which means 'black land,' owing to the rich, dark soil. The name Hut-Ka-Ptah was translated by the Greeks as 'Aegyptos' which became 'Egypt.' It is a testament to the power and fame of early Memphis that the Greeks named the country after the city.
EARLY HISTORY
In the Early Dynastic Period, the city was referred to as Inbu - Hedj ('White Walls') because the mud brick walls were painted white and were said to gleam in the sun from miles away. There is no evidence the actual name of the city changed, however.This new epithet for the city probably came about at the beginning of the Third Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2670-c.2613 BCE) when Djoser came to power. Prior to this, the kings were buried at Abydos, but toward the end of the Second Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2890-c.2670 BCE) they were buried near Memphis, close to Giza.
Djoser is said to have elevated the status of the city by making it his capital, but it was already the seat of power in Egypt prior to his reign. It is more probable that he increased the city's prestige by choosing a nearby site, Saqqara, for his mortuary complex and pyramid tomb. The white walls of the city would have reflected the status of this king and called attention to his eternal home nearby. Egyptologist Kathryn A. Bard writes, "The North Saqqara cemetery is on a prominent limestone ridge overlooking the valley and the presence of large, elaborately niched superstructures would have been very impressive symbols of status" (Shaw, 72). The city walls may have been painted white to further reflect this status. According to Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson, it was not the walls of the city but those of the central palace whose walls were painted white and gave the city its epithet. Wilkinson writes:
With its whitewashed exterior, this building known as White Wall must have been a dazzling sight, comparable in its symbolism to the White House of a modern superpower. Other royal buildings throughout the land were consciously modeled on White Wall (31).
There is no doubt, however, that the city was already the capital of a unified Egypt prior to Djoser and held in high regard, so it is possible the walls of either the city or the palace were painted white before his reign. Bard notes that "tombs of high officials have been found at nearby North Saqqara and officials of all levels were buried at other sites in the Memphite region. Such funerary evidence suggests that Memphis was the administrative centre of the state" (Shaw, 64). Excavations have unearthed pottery and grave goods dating to the First Dynasty of Egypt, even though Manetho claims that Memphis did not become the capital until the Third Dynasty.
CAPITAL OF THE OLD KINGDOM
During the Old Kingdom the city continued as the capital. King Sneferu (c. 2613-2589 BCE) reigned in the city as he commissioned his great pyramids. Sneferu perfected the art of pyramid building and work in stone which had been initiated by Djoser's vizier and chief architect Imhotep (c. 2667-2600 BCE) at Saqqara. Sneferu's successor, Khufu (c. 2589-2566 BCE), would build on his success to create the Great Pyramid at nearby Giza. His successors, Khafre (c. 2558-2532 BCE) and Menkaure (c. 2532-2503 BCE) built their own pyramids there after him. Memphis, as capital, was the seat and source of the intricate and far-reaching bureaucracy which enabled these kings to organize the kind of labor force and resources necessary to build their enormous complexes and pyramids.
By the time of the first king of the 5th Dynasty, Userkaf (c. 2498-2491 BCE), Giza was a flourishing necropolis administered by priests of the gods and featuring all the aspects of a small city including shops, factories, temples, streets, and private homes.Memphis continued to grow at this time as well and mirrored the developments at Giza. The Temple of Ptah became an important religious center, and monuments were raised throughout the city to honor this god. At the same time, the cult of the sun god Ra was becoming more popular and the priests of Ra, who administered the complexes at Giza, were becoming more powerful. Userkaf, perhaps finding that there was no more room to build at Giza, chose nearby Abusir as the site for his mortuary complex and had a temple to Ra built in his honor, the first of many constructed in the 5th Dynasty when the cult of Ra was growing in popularity.
The Pyramids of Giza
During the reign of the 6th Dynasty king Pepi I (c. 2332-2283 BCE) the city came to be known as Memphis. Historian Margaret Bunson explains:
Pepi I built his beautiful pyramid at Saqqara. That mortuary monument was called Men-nefer-Mare, the "Established and Beautiful Pyramid of Men-nefer-Mare". The name soon came to designate the surrounding area, including the city itself. It was called Men-nefer ["the enduring and beautiful"] and then Menfi. The Greeks, visiting the capital centuries later, translated the name to Memphis (161).
The 6th Dynasty kings steadily lost power over the country as resources dwindled, the priests of Ra and local officials became more wealthy and powerful, and the authority of Memphis degenerated. During the reign of Pepi II (c. 2278-2184 BCE) the king's power declined steadily. A drought brought famine, which the government at Memphis could do nothing to alleviate, and the Old Kingdom's power structure collapsed.
THE RISE OF THEBES
Memphis continued to serve as the capital during the early part of the era known as the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2040 BCE). The records from this time period are often confused or missing, but it seems Memphis remained the capital throughout the 7th and 8th Dynasties with the kings claiming for themselves the authority and legitimacy of the Old Kingdom rulers. Their seat of power in the traditional capital, however, was the only aspect of rule they had in common with the earlier monarchs of Egypt. While they entertained themselves with the belief in their own authority, the local officials (nomarchs) of the districts began to rule their communities independently. There does still seem to be some acknowledgment of Memphis as the capital, but it was so in name only.
MEMPHIS, AS CAPITAL OF THE OLD KINGDOM, WAS THE SEAT & SOURCE OF THE INTRICATE AND FAR-REACHING BUREAUCRACY WHICH ENABLED THESE KINGS TO ORGANIZE THE LABOR FORCE & RESOURCES NECESSARY TO BUILD THEIR ENORMOUS COMPLEXES & PYRAMIDS.
At some point either in the late 8th Dynasty or early 9th, the kings of Memphis moved the capital to the city of Herakleopolis, perhaps in an effort to revitalize their authority somehow. Their reasons for the move are unclear, but they had no more relevance to the country at Herakleopolis than they had had at Memphis. The First Intermediate Period has traditionally been characterized as a "dark age" of chaos but was actually just a time when the regional governors held more power than the central government and Egypt was no longer unified under a single strong ruler. The nomarchs of the different districts experienced varying levels of success according to their individual talents and resources, but one city began to grow more powerful than the others owing to the leadership of their nomarchs.
Thebes was just another provincial city in Upper Egypt when an official named Intef I (c. 2125 BCE) came to power. Intef I energized the Thebans and challenged the authority of the kings at Herakleopolis. His successors continued his policies, warring against the weak central government, until the reign of Mentuhotep II (c. 2061-2010 BCE), who overthrew the Herakleopolitan kings and unified Egypt under Theban rule.
Thebes now became the capital of Egypt, and the great monuments which had previously been lavished on Memphis now rose in this city. The early governor Wahankh Intef II (c. 2112-2063 BCE) is thought to be the first to raise a monument at Karnak and Mentuhotep II added to the grandeur of Thebes with his own mortuary complex. The city continued as capital only to the reign of Amenemhat I (c. 1991-1962 BCE), who moved the capital north to Iti-tawi near Lisht. Memphis and Thebes continued as important religious and cultural centers throughout the Middle Kingdom, however. Construction of the great Temple of Karnak continued at Thebes while at Memphis shrines and temples to the god Ptah increased. Amenemhat I raised a shrine to Ptah at Memphis and his successors also patronized the city adding their own monuments.
Even during the decline of the Middle Kingdom in the 13th Dynasty, the kings continued to honor Memphis with temples and monuments. Although the cult of the god Amun had grown more popular, Ptah was still honored at Memphis as the city's patron deity. Memphis continued as an important cultural and commercial center trading with districts throughout Egypt while attracting visitors to the temples and shrines.
MEMPHIS IN THE NEW KINGDOM
The Middle Kingdom was followed by another era of instability and disunity known as the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1782-1570 BCE) and characterized chiefly by the rise in power of a people known as the Hyksos who ruled Lower Egypt from Avaris. They took control of Egyptian cities from their northern stronghold and raided Memphis, carrying monuments back to Avaris. Although the later Egyptian writers claimed that the Hyksos destroyed Egyptian culture and oppressed the people, they actually admired the culture greatly and emulated it in their art, architecture, fashion, and religious observances.
Colossus of Ramesses II
Memphis shows evidence of severe damage during this period as the Hyksos removed structures to Avaris and destroyed others. The Hyksos were driven out of Egypt by Ahmose I (c. 1570-1544 BCE) of Thebes who reunited Egypt and initiated the period known as the New Kingdom (c. 1570-1069 BCE). Thebes again became the capital of Egypt while Memphis continued its traditional role as a religious and commercial center. The great kings of the New Kingdom all built at Memphis, raising temples and monuments. Akhenaten (1353-1336 BCE) built a temple to his god Aten at Memphis during the Amarna Periodwhen he closed the temples and banished the worship of all other gods. Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE) moved the capital of the country to his new city of Per-Ramesses (at the site of Avaris) but honored Memphis with a number of enormous monuments. His successors continued the respect for Memphis, which was regarded as the Second City of Egypt after the capital.
RELIGIOUS IMPORTANCE & LATER SIGNIFICANCE
Memphis had always enjoyed a high level of prestige from its founding onwards and continued to be even after the decline of the New Kingdom into the Third Intermediate Period (1069-525 BCE). While a number of cities suffered from neglect during this period, Memphis' status remained unchanged. In 671 BCE, when the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (681-669 BCE) invaded Egypt, he made a point of sacking Memphis and carrying important members of the community back to his capital at Nineveh.
The religious importance of the city, however, ensured it would survive the Assyrian invasion and it was rebuilt. Memphis became a center of resistance against Assyrian occupation and was again destroyed by Ashurbanipal (668-627 BCE), who invaded in 666 BCE. Ashurbanipal also sacked Thebes and other important cities and placed Assyrians in key positions throughout the country to maintain control.
Memphis again revived as a religious center, and under the Saite pharaohs of the 26th Dynasty (664-525 BCE) the city was rebuilt and fortified. The gods of Egypt, especially Ptah, continued to be worshiped there, and further shrines and monuments were built in their honor.
Alabaster Sphinx in Memphis
In 525 BCE the Persian general Cambysses II invaded Egypt, defeating the army at Pelusium and marching on Memphis. He took the city and fortified it, making it the capital of the satrapy of Persian Egypt. When Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) took Egypt in 331 BCE, he had himself crowned pharaoh at Memphis, linking himself with the great monarchs of the past.
During the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE) which followed Alexander's death, the Greek pharaohs maintained the city at its traditional level of prestige. Ptolemy I (323-283 BCE) respected the city and had Alexander's body entombed there at the beginning of his reign. He further honored Memphis as he established his new cult of Serapis at nearby Saqqara. Ptolemy II (283-246 BCE) had Alexander's body removed to Alexandria and initiated a number of building projects there including the Serapeum, the great library, and the university. Alexandria became the jewel of Egypt and a center of learning and culture, but Memphis would begin to decline.
The city was still considered an important religious center, however, and the priests of the city were on par with secular authorities in power. The temples and shrines of the gods were rebuilt and renovated under the Ptolemies and new buildings were raised. Egyptologist Alan B. Lloyd writes:
The priests were based at numerous temples, which were frequently rebuilt or embellished in Ptolemaic times and still constitute some of the most spectacular and complete remains of pharaonic culture. (Shaw, 406)
These temples, at Memphis and elsewhere, were not just homes to the gods and centers of worship but factories of a kind which produced clothing, artifacts, and artwork such as paintings. The temples of Memphis kept the city's reputation in good standing, but as the Ptolemaic Dynasty continued, it lost its status to Alexandria. The Memphis Decree (better known as the Rosetta Stone) was issued in 196 BCE by Ptolemy V, and after that, the city steadily loses its prestige.
Rosetta Stone
DECLINE OF MEMPHIS
The Ptolemaic Dynasty ended with the death of the last queen, Cleopatra VII (69-30 BCE), and Egypt was annexed by Rome. Alexandria, with its great port and centers of learning, became the focal point of Roman administration of Egypt, and Memphis was forgotten. With the rise of Christianity in the 4th century CE, Memphis declined further as fewer and fewer people visited the shrines and temples, and by the 5th century CE, when Christianity was the dominant religion of the Roman Empire, Memphis was in decay.
By the time of the 7th century CE Arab invasion, the city was in ruins. The temples, buildings, shrines, and walls were dismantled and used to build the city of Fustat, the first capital of Muslim Egypt, as well as the later city of Cairo. In the present day nothing is left of the city of Memphis but stumps of pillars, foundations, the remains of walls, broken statues, and stray pieces of columns near the village of Mit Rahina.
The site was included by UNESCO on their World Heritage List in 1979 CE as a place of special cultural significance, and it continues to be a popular tourist attraction featuring a museum. The alabaster sphinx and the colossus of Ramesses II are especially impressive and the site is admired by visitors in the present as much as the city of Memphis was by those of the ancient past.
Third Intermediate Period of Egypt › Antique Origins
Definition and Origins
The Third Intermediate Period (c. 1069-525 BCE) is the era following the New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1570-c.1069 BCE) and preceding the Late Period (c.525-332 BCE). Egyptian history was divided into eras of 'kingdoms' and 'intermediate periods' by Egyptologists of the late 19th century CE to clarify the study of the country's history, but these designations were not used by the ancient Egyptians themselves. The term 'kingdom' is used to define an era of strong central government while 'intermediate period' designates a time of disunity and divided rule. In the First Intermediate Period of Egypt (2181-2040 BCE) and the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1782-1570 BCE) this division caused tension between the two seats of power.In the First Intermediate Period relations were strained between the two kingdoms of Herakleopolis and Thebes, and during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt between Thebes and the Hyksos rulers of Avaris, to the north, and the Nubians to the south.
THE DIVISION OF POWER
In the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt, power was held almost equally between Tanis and Thebes early on, fluctuating at times one way or another, and the two cities ruled jointly even though they often had quite different agendas. Tanis was the seat of secular rule while Thebes was a theocracy. As there was no separation between one's religious and daily life in ancient Egypt, 'secular' should be understood here along the lines of 'pragmatic.' The rulers of Tanis made their decisions based upon circumstances and accepted the responsibility even though the gods were certainly consulted. The High Priests at Thebes consulted the god Amun directly on every aspect of rule, and, in fact, Amun could safely be considered the actual 'king' of Thebes.
The king of Tanis and the High Priest of Thebes were often related as were those of the two ruling houses. The position of God's Wife of Amun, a position of great power and wealth, illustrates this clearly as both daughters of the rulers of Tanis and Thebes held it. Joint projects and policies were undertaken by both cities, as evidenced by inscriptions left by the kings and priests, and each understood and respected the legitimacy of the other.
With this in mind, it is important to note that the Third Intermediate Period has long been regarded as a kind of epilogue to Egyptian history and an even darker age of chaos and collapse than the earlier intermediate periods. None of the intermediate periods of Egypt were as chaotic as early Egyptologists (and even later ones) interpreted them. The views of these early scholars were very much influenced by their times and the form of government they recognized as legitimate. Strong central rule was interpreted as good while disunity was seen as perilous. In reality, all three of the intermediate periods maintained a continuity of culture without a unifying central government and each added their own contributions to Egypt's history.
Map of the Third Intermediate Period
The difference between the first two and the last is that, following the Third Intermediate Period, Egypt did not rise again to continue on to greater heights. In the latter part of the 22nd Dynasty, Egypt was divided by civil war, and by the time of the 23rd, the country was divided between self-styled monarchs who ruled from Herakleopolis, Tanis, Hermopolis, Thebes, Memphis, and Sais. This division made a united defense of the country impossible and the Nubians invaded from the south.
The 24th and 25th dynasties saw unification under Nubian rule, but the country was not strong enough to resist the advance of the Assyrians first under Esarhaddon (681-669 BCE) in 671/670 BCE and then by Ashurbanipal (668-627 BCE) in 666 BCE.Although the Assyrians were driven from the country, Egypt did not have the resources to repel other invaders. The Persian invasion of 525 BCE ended Egyptian autonomy until the rise of the 28th Dynasty of Amyrtaeus (c.404-398 BCE) in the Late Period freed Lower Egypt from Persian domination. Amyrtaeus, however, did not unify the country under Egyptian rule and the Persians continued to hold Upper Egypt. The 30th Dynasty (c. 380-343 BCE), also of the Late Period of Egypt, did achieve unity but it did not last long and the Persians returned in 343 BCE to hold Egypt as a satrapy until it was taken by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE. This period, therefore, is generally seen as a long decline which extinguished Egyptian culture, and while that interpretation is understandable, it is not quite accurate.
THE NATURE OF THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
This difference between the Third Intermediate Period and the first two has resulted in a number of scholars, from the 19th through the 20th centuries CE and even to the present, characterizing the era as the end of Egyptian history and the collapse of the culture. The previous two intermediate periods have also been presented as 'dark ages' of confusion and chaos, but the Third Intermediate Period receives the worst treatment because there was no glorious Middle Kingdom or New Kingdomwhich followed it, only the Late Period which is often seen as simply a continuation of the Third Intermediate Period's decline.These interpretations do a great disservice to an era which, although lacking in the traditional unity and homogeneity of the earlier periods, still maintained a strong sense of culture.
Egyptian mortuary rites, which resulted in some of the most impressive works of art for upper class and royal tombs, continued to be observed. Artwork of striking detail and innovation, especially in bronze, faience, silver, and gold, was produced during this time as well as intricate inscriptions, paintings, and statuary. Building projects were minimal during this time both in number and scope because the resources and a central government able to organize large-scale projects were not available until the reign of Amasis (Ahmose II, 570-526 BCE) of the 26th Dynasty and then the later unification of the country under the 30th Dynasty.
Religious practices seem to have focused on the concept of the pharaoh as a son of god, which led to the development of the mammisi (birth house), a local temple dedicated to worship of the child god born of the union of two powerful deities, one of whom was usually associated with the sun. The concept of triads of gods (father, mother, child) had a long history in Egypt and continued during this time with the popularity of the Cult of Isis and the triad of Osiris, Isis, and the child-god Horus. Worship of Amun, especially at Thebes, continued, but the Cult of Isis would outlast Amun's worship and later travel to Rome to influence the early faith of Christianity.
Amun
The Third Intermediate Period began as the reign of Ramesses XI (1107-1077 BCE), the last pharaoh of the New Kingdom, came to an end. The power of the great New Kingdom pharaohs had been waning throughout the 20th Dynasty (c. 1190-1077 BCE) while that of the High Priests of Amun had grown. By the end of the New Kingdom, the god Amun was effectively the ruler of Egypt as the pharaoh was no longer considered a necessary intermediary between the people and their gods. The cult of Amun, based in their great and ever-expanding temple of Karnak at Thebes, owned more land and had more wealth than the crown and their influence had become considerable. Instead of the pharaoh interpreting the will of the gods, the priests consulted Amun himself and the god would answer them. Civic and criminals cases, matters of policy, domestic issues were all decided by the god. Historian Marc van de Mieroop writes:
The god made decisions of state in actual practice. A regular Festival of the Divine Audience took place at Karnak when the god's statue communicated through oracles, by nodding assent when he agreed. Divine oracles had become important in the 18th Dynasty; in the Third Intermediate Period they formed the basis of governmental practice. (266)
When Ramesses XI died he was buried by Smendes (c.1077-1051 BCE), a governor of Lower Egypt who ruled from Tanis and may have been married to a member of the royal family. In keeping with Egyptian tradition, a king was buried by his successor and Smendes claimed the legitimate right to rule and moved the capital from the city of Per Ramesses to Tanis. By this time, however, the priests at Thebes were powerful enough to be able to claim their own legitimacy to govern and the country divided between rule of Lower Egypt from Tanis and that of Upper Egypt from Thebes. Contrary to earlier interpretations of the period, however, this division did not result in civil war or internal strife. Egyptologist John Taylor notes:
It is true that the period was marked by tensions over control of territory and resources, leading on occasion to conflicts, but violence was not endemic; the period as a whole was stable and represents far more than a temporary lapse from traditional pharonic rule. (Shaw, 324)
Smendes founded the 21st Dynasty, and, although it was never as powerful as earlier periods, it maintained the culture and eventually broadened and deepened it as Libyans (known as Meshwesh or the Ma) came to rule and foreign customs became integrated into Egyptian culture. In the 21st Dynasty one finds a number of rulers with Egyptian names who still were most likely Libyan, and in the latter dynasties, Libyans reigned from both Tanis and Thebes under Libyan names, attesting to the acceptance of non-Egyptians in positions of power; a situation which would have been intolerable in Egypt's earlier history. Far from a strife-torn era, the early part of the Third Intermediate Period was one of remarkable tolerance and cooperation. Van de Mieroop writes:
Kings of Tanis and high priests at Thebes recognized each other's existence without rancor. They regularly helped each other and acted jointly. For example, King Smendes sent assistance to Thebes when a flood threatened Luxor temple, and High Priest Pinudjem I helped King Psusennes I when he built the Amun temple at Tanis. The two left joint inscriptions. The relationship between the two houses was very personal. The founder of the dynasty, Smendes, may have been the son of High Priest Herihor, and his daughter married High Priest Pinudjem I...They coexisted under an agreement that can be likened to the concordat between church and state in European history: secular and religious powers accepted each other's areas of influence. In 21st-dynasty Egypt the northern royal house nominally ruled the entire country, but in reality allowed another branch of the family to run the south on the basis of its priestly office. (270)
This division of rule worked well in that the kings of Tanis were able to govern Lower Egypt and the priests of Thebes Upper Egypt with greater attention to detail than a central government at Memphis or Per Ramesses or Thebes administering the welfare of the entire country. Even so, without a strong central government to set a standard every region of Egypt would adhere to, the different administrative districts of the country took what power they could and prospered or suffered want accordingly. Even though Smendes was the legitimate king of Egypt, his actual reach never extended very far beyond Tanis.
TANIS & THEBES
Tanis may have been a small village or city during the New Kingdom which grew as a trade center and point of access to the Nile during the latter years of that era. Although Smendes ruled from the city, its early history is unclear as no archaeological evidence found there predates the reign of Psusennes I (c. 1047-1001 BCE), the third king of the 21st Dynasty. It was most likely built by Smendes from the ruins of Per Ramesses. The early Egyptologists who discovered the city thought it was built by Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE) because of the number of his inscriptions on the foundation stones. More recent scholarship has shown that these stones were originally part of the metropolis of Per Ramesses which were reused at Tanis.
As a new city, Tanis patterned itself on one of the greatest in Egypt's history: Thebes. From the Temple of Amun to the streets and districts, the new city in Lower Egypt mirrored the much older one to the south. The kings of Tanis did the same and took on the traditional titles, fashions, and responsibilities of the pharaohs of earlier times when Thebes had been the capital.
The Great Sphinx of Tanis
Thebes was already an established and populous city by c. 3200 BCE, had been the capital of the country during the New Kingdom, and was the site of the most massive and important religious center in the country: the Temple of Amun at Karnak.The priests of Amun at Thebes certainly had the power and precedent to declare themselves the 'true kings' of Egypt from the old city and crush the 'pretenders' at Tanis - but they never did. Further, there is no evidence they considered the Tanite kings anything but rightful rulers. Inscriptions make clear that the officials at Thebes considered the kings of Tanis the legitimate monarchs of Egypt while acknowledging their high priests as well.
The dynasties of the Third Intermediate Period reflect this division of power in that, besides the 3rd-century BCE historian Manetho's, there are no official king's lists as there are for other periods of Egyptian history. Taylor notes how "a sound historical framework for these centuries has proved more difficult to establish than for any other major period of Egyptian history" because of the lack of a king's list or any other significant documentation Egyptologists usually rely on (Shaw, 324).The king's list of Manetho is more muddled for this period than the others as well resulting in a confusing chronology of rule with ebbs and flows of power fluctuating between the High Priests of Amun at Thebes and the kings of Tanis and, later, other seats of power. Van de Mieroop writes:
Compared to the New kingdom and especially the Ramessid Period, the source material for the Third Intermediate Period is limited. This is true for all levels of society. The village of Deir el-Medina ceased to produce the abundant documents of daily life, and only dispersed finds illustrate how people outside temples and palaces lived during this time. (261)
Van de Mieroop, however, notes that the scarcity of records from this time may be due, in part at least, to them being stored at Tanis and other cities in the marshy Delta region of Egypt "where more humid conditions caused the decay of many remains" (261). This is speculation, however, as few records have been found in the Delta region. Official records would have traditionally been kept at the nation's capital, but as there were essentially two capitals, it is unclear why they would have been kept at Tanis and not Thebes which already had buildings that had served that purpose in the past and where the climate was drier.
Whatever the reasoning was, the result is the loss of a tremendous amount of information on the era and the attendant difficulty of reconstructing it as completely as others. Some notable kings stand out from obscurity and some impressive women also emerge in the position of God's Wife of Amun but the steady chronology of past periods is not possible for this one.
THE 21ST DYNASTY
Smendes founded the 21st Dynasty but was clearly important enough before the death of Ramesses XI to warrant mention. In The Tale of Wenamun (also known as The Report of Wenamun ), possibly dating from the late New Kingdom, a government official from Thebes named Wenamun visits Smendes at Tanis on his way to Byblos while no mention is made of Ramesses XI or the court at Per Ramesses at all.
The Tale of Wenamun was once considered an actual historical document, but recent scholarship interprets it as historical fiction. Either way, the story presents a number of interesting aspects about Egypt in the late New Kingdom/early Third Intermediate Period: nomarchs like Smendes were more important than the pharaoh, a simple expedition to retrieve lumber for shipbuilding was a major undertaking, when in the New Kingdom, it would have been so easy as to not even receive mention and the prestige Egypt had once enjoyed among its neighbors had fallen considerably.
Stela of Herihor
The kings of the 21st Dynasty were most likely Libyans ruling under Egyptian names as were the priests at Thebes. Perhaps owing to the Libyan paradigm of small, centralized kingdoms, they were content with their spheres of influence or, perhaps, they actually believed they were co-ruling over a united Egypt. In reality, though, Egypt had been steadily dividing into regional rule throughout the latter part of the Ramessid Period of the New Kingdom. Throughout the course of this era, the country would unify under a strong leader only to fall apart again.
SHOSHENQ I AND THE 22ND DYNASTY
The 22nd Dynasty was also Libyan, whose kings now ruled openly under Libyan names. It was founded by Shoshenq I (943-922 BCE), who unified Egypt and embarked on military campaigns reminiscent of the days of Egypt's empire. He is thought to be the Shishak from the Bible who sacked Jerusalem and carried away the treasure from Solomon 's Temple as described in I Kings 11:40, I Kings 14:25-26, and II Chronicles 12:2-9, although this claim has been challenged. Shoshenq I left an inscription of his campaign into Judah and Israel at Karnak which supports the biblical connection, but it does not mention Jerusalem among the cities sacked. To some scholars, this omission suggests that Shoshenq I is not the biblical Shishak, although every other aspect of the inscription would support the claim he is.
SHOSHENQ I UNIFIED EGYPT & EMBARKED ON MILITARY CAMPAIGNS REMINISCENT OF THE DAYS OF EGYPT'S EMPIRE. HE IS THOUGHT TO BE THE SHISHAK FROM THE BIBLE WHO SACKED JERUSALEM & CARRIED AWAY THE TREASURE FROM SOLOMON'S TEMPLE.
Shoshenq I reformed the government at Tanis and the priesthood at Thebes. The priesthood would no longer be a hereditary position, but one of appointment by the king; and this would also hold true for the selection of God's Wife of Amun. His military campaigns revitalized the economy of Egypt and, under his reign, the country began to somewhat resemble the Egypt of the New Kingdom.
His successes, however, did not last long after his death. Between 922 and 872 BCE, the rulers who followed him sought only to capitalize on his achievements while adding little to them. Owing to the missing and confused records of the time it is difficult to even know for certain the order of succession, but archaeological evidence supports the view that little of note was accomplished. In 872 BCE Osorkon II (872-837 BCE) took the throne and held the country together, but following his reign Egypt splintered into separate kingdoms ruling from Herakleopolis, Tanis, Sais, Memphis, and Hermopolis in Lower Egypt, and Thebes in Upper Egypt.
THE 24TH & 25TH DYNASTIES
To the south, the Kushite king Kashta (c. 750 BCE) recognized Egypt's weakness and moved to capitalize on it. Kashta greatly admired Egyptian culture and had 'Egyptianized' his capital city of Napata and, by extension, his realm. He had strong ties through trade with Thebes and was aware of the process by which priests and other high officials were appointed. With no central rule from Lower Egypt able to exert any authority in Upper Egypt, Kashta had his daughter, Amenirdis I, appointed God's Wife of Amun. The significance of this position was immense, as Van de Mieroop notes: "The political importance of these women was very great and publicly acknowledged. They often acted as regents for their fathers or brothers in the Theban area, adopting royal attributes there" (275). Amenirdis I effectively took control of Thebes and, with it, Upper Egypt.With Lower Egypt divided, Kashta peacefully took control of the country and declared himself King of Upper and Lower Egypt.
His son, Piye (747-721 BCE), strengthened Nubian control of Upper Egypt and, when the kings of Lower Egypt objected, he led his considerable army against them. Piye conquered Lower Egypt, taking all the major cities and subjugating them, and then marched back home to Napata. Egypt was technically now under his reign, but he left the kings of Lower Egypt to regroup and re-establish their authority.
Piye's brother, Shabaka (721-707 BCE) succeeded him and conquered Lower Egypt all the way up to the city of Sais. Egypt was now under Nubian domination, but contrary to earlier interpretations of this period, Egyptian culture and traditions continued to be observed. Shabaka, like Kashta and Piye before him, admired Egypt's long civilization and sought to preserve it. His son, with the very Egyptian name of Haremakhet, was appointed High Priest of Amun at Thebes, and his reign is characterized by building projects throughout Egypt, preservation of historical documents, and securing the borders against invasion.
Taharqa
Shabaka was succeeded by Shebitku (707-690 BCE), a younger brother or nephew, who chose the Egyptian throne name Djedkare. Shebitku inherited a strong country but also a formidable adversary in the form of the Assyrians. When Shoshenq I conquered Judah and Israel it was considered a great achievement by the Egyptians but, long term, it weakened the country by removing an important buffer zone. Following the Second Intermediate Period, the pharaohs of the New Kingdom initiated a policy of expansion to prevent any future incursions such as that of the Hyksos. During the Third Intermediate Period, these buffer zones shrank and Egypt lost its former power, but there were still nations on its border, such as Judah and Israel, which would serve the same purpose. Shoshenq I's conquest of those regions brought Egypt's border up against that of the Assyrians with no buffer in between.
Under Shabaka's reign, sanctuary had been given to the rebel Ashdod, who had revolted against the Assyrian king Sargon II(722-705 BCE), and under Shebitku, Egypt supported Judah against Sargon II's successor Sennacherib (705-681 BCE).Sennacherib was assassinated before he could mount a campaign against Egypt, but this was carried out by his son Esarhaddon, who invaded in 671 BCE under the reign of the Nubian king Taharqa (c. 690-671 BCE) who is equated with the biblical king Tirhakah from II Kings 19:9 (though this claim is contested). Esarhaddon captured Taharqa's family and a number of other nobles and sent them in chains back to Nineveh, though Taharqa managed to escape. He was succeeded by Tantamani (c. 669-666 BCE), who took Egypt back from the Assyrians and incurred the wrath of Eharhaddon's son and successor Ashurbanipal, who conquered Egypt in 666 BCE.
THE 26TH DYNASTY (SAITE PERIOD) & PERSIAN INVASION
The Assyrians were not interested in occupying Egypt, however, and left it under the reign of Necho I (c. 666 BCE), who had become their puppet king. Necho I was killed in Tantamani's campaign to free Egypt from the Assyrians and rule passed to Necho's son Psammeticus I (also known as Psamtik I, c. 665-610 BCE). Psammeticus I is considered the founder of the 26th Dynasty and initiated the so-called Saite Period of Egyptian history during which the kings ruled from the city of Sais in the northern Delta.
Psammeticus I seemingly abided by Assyrian policies but was actually carefully planning their overthrow. C. 656 BCE he launched a naval assault on Thebes and forced the sitting God's Wife of Amun to favor his daughter Nitocris I as successor.Nitocris Asumí la posición de la Esposa de Dios de Amón y controlé Tebas, mientras que Psammeticus I hizo campaña contra los funcionarios locales y los gobernadores que mantenían las políticas asirias.
Después de liberar a Egipto del dominio asirio, Psammeticus reformó el gobierno en Sais e inició proyectos de construcción de acuerdo con la tradición real. Según algunos estudiosos, el Tercer Período Intermedio termina aquí con Psammeticus I uniendo a Egipto, pero esta interpretación no tiene sentido. La 26ª dinastía seguiría la dirección de Psammeticus y mantendría sus políticas y su visión, y una visión más completa de la época sitúa el final del período al que pertenece: al final del período Saita.
Psammeticus Yo era un líder fuerte que impresionó a sus súbditos la gloria del pasado de Egipto al restaurarlo a través de sus proyectos monumentales, renovaciones, restauraciones y logros militares. Su hijo, Necho II (610-595 a. C.) se basó en los logros de su padre liderando campañas militares, comisionando proyectos de construcción y ampliando el ejército. Los egipcios nunca fueron un gran pueblo marinero, y al reconocer esto, Necho II creó una armada con mercenarios griegos, que resultó bastante efectiva. Necho II es rutinariamente representado como un gran guerrero y líder militar que fortaleció el país que había heredado. En la Biblia, es conocido como el rey egipcio que mata a Josías de Judá en la batalla. de Meggido (II Reyes 23:29, II Crónicas 35: 20-22) y, allí también, es visto como un líder impresionante.
Necao II fue sucedido por su hijo Psammeticus II (Psamtik II, 595-589 BCE) que continuó las políticas de su padre. También fue un gran líder militar, responsable de que los nubios trasladaran su capital desde Napata, más al sur, hasta Meroe c. 592 BCE para distanciarse de Egipto
La frontera de Psammeticus II lideró una fuerza contra el Reino de Kush en Nubia, destruyendo todo a su paso, pero habiendo ganado todos los enfrentamientos, parece haber perdido interés en la campaña y regresó a Egipto. Gran parte de su éxito en esta campaña se debió a su general, el futuro Amasis II, que puede haberse sentido ofendido por el esfuerzo incompleto y en última instancia inútil. Psammeticus II parece haber estado más interesado en borrar los nombres de los gobernantes kushitas de los monumentos del sur, destruir otros edificios e incluso, posiblemente, tratar de borrar el nombre de su padre de la historia. Sus razones para hacer tales cosas todavía se debaten sin dar una respuesta clara.
When Psammeticus II died, he was succeeded by his son Wahibre Haaibre (better known as Apries, 589-570 BCE), whose reign amounted to a series of challenges to his authority. He first unsuccessfully battled the Babylonians and then, when the general Amasis orchestrated a coup, sought their help to win back the throne. He is thought to have been killed by Amasis in battle. Amasis II (also known as Ahmose II) then became pharaoh and elevated the country to a height it had not known in centuries.
Amasis II was a brilliant military leader and bureaucrat who was able to reform government spending while also stimulating the economy and orchestrating military campaigns. Egypt united behind his rule and prospered again with a booming economy, secure borders, and prosperous trade. Building projects, monuments, and other artwork were completed and Egypt's name recovered some of its lost prestige. He was succeeded by his son Psammeticus III (Psamtik III, 526-525 BCE) who was a young man and inexperienced when he came to the throne and poorly equipped for the challenges he had to meet.
Según Herodoto, el rey persa Cambises II había enviado a Amasis pidiendo esposa a una de sus hijas, pero Amasis, que no deseaba cumplir pero también esperaba evitar el conflicto, envió a la hija de Apries. Esta antigua princesa de Egipto se sintió profundamente insultada por la decisión de Amasis, y sobre todo porque desde hacía mucho tiempo la política egipcia era negarse a enviar mujeres nobles a reyes extranjeros como esposas. Cuando llegó a la corte de Cambises II, ella le reveló quién era en realidad y Cambises II juró vengar el insulto de Amasis al enviarle una 'esposa falsa'.
El ejército persa se movilizó y marchó sobre Egipto. El punto de entrada sería la ciudad de Pelusium en el Delta, y las murallas se fortalecieron rápidamente. Las fuerzas de Cambyses II atacaron y fueron rechazadas hasta que formuló un nuevo plan. Conociendo el amor egipcio por los animales, en particular los gatos, Cambises II ordenó a sus soldados que reunieran a todos los animales callejeros y salvajes que pudieran encontrar y les hizo pintar la imagen de Bastet, la popular diosa egipcia de los gatos, en sus escudos. Los persas luego condujeron a los animales frente a ellos contra las paredes de Pelusium, y los egipcios, temerosos de herir a los animales o enfurecer a su diosa, se rindieron.
Cambyses II of Persia
Se dice que Cambyses II ordenó una marcha triunfal en el lugar durante el cual arrojó gatos desde una bolsa a las caras del egipcio con desprecio. Llevó a Psammeticus III, la familia real y miles de otros a su capital en Susa, donde la mayoría fueron asesinados. Psammeticus III vivió como un miembro del séquito del rey persa hasta que se descubrió que fomentaba la revuelta y fue ejecutado.
Con su muerte, la 26ª Dinastía y el Tercer Período Intermedio llegaron a su fin. Los persas gobernarían Egipto en las dinastías 27 y 31 y serían una amenaza constante en los períodos dinámicos 28º a 30º. Después de la Batalla de Pelusium, a excepción de breves períodos, Egipto dejó de ser una nación autónoma. Los persas lo mantuvieron esporádicamente hasta la llegada de Alejandro Magno en 331 a. C., y después de su muerte, el país fue gobernado por la dinastía griega de los Ptolomeos hasta ser anexionada por Roma en el 30 a.
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