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Balhae › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Balhae ( Parhae ) kingdom in Manchuria (698-926 CE) was an important regional power which interacted both peacefully and otherwise with its neighbours the Unified Silla Kingdom of Korea and Tang China. The latter was a strong cultural influence, and Japan, too, was a staunch ally. The kingdom claimed to be the cultural successors to the earlier Goguryeo ( Koguryo ) kingdom of northern Korea and Balhae prospered for two centuries thanks to its rich agricultural lands and thriving trade relations. The kingdom collapsed in the early 10th century CE when it was attacked and conquered by the Mongolian Khitan tribe.
FOUNDATION & EXPANSION
The kingdom was founded in 698 CE by Dae Jo-yeong (Tae Choyong), a general of the semi-nomadic Malgal (Mohe) tribe of eastern Manchuria. The population was originally formed by exiles from the old Goguryeo kingdom (37 BCE – 668 CE) of northern Korea, which had been overtaken by the Silla kingdom, and members of the Malgal along with other groups like the Wuji, Khitan, and Eastern Turks. Dae Jo-yeong made himself king with the new name of King Ko and reigned until 719 CE.
The state was named Balhae in 706 CE, after the sea around the Liaodong and Shandong peninsulas, with various citiesacting as the state capital during the first half of the 8th century CE until the Supreme Capital (Shangjing/Sanggyong) was established in 755 CE near the Hurkha River. Shangjing had impressive fortification walls and large palaces which had the Korean ondol system of underfloor heating and decorative roof tiles. There were four other secondary capitals, 15 lesser towns ( pu ) below these, and then a lower level of villages ruled by local headmen who reported to the various upper levels of centralised government which largely copied the Tang model. Five important roadways helped unify the kingdom.
BALHAE WAS SQUEEZED BETWEEN TWO POWERFUL NEIGHBOURS, THE UNIFIED SILLA KINGDOM & CHINA, BUT THIS DID NOT PREVENT IT FROM PURSUING A VIGOROUSLY INDEPENDENT FOREIGN POLICY.
The Yunghung and Daedong (Taedong) Rivers formed the border with Balhae's southern neighbour, the Unified Silla Kingdom of Korea. The period of these two nations is sometimes referred to as the North-South division ( Nambuk sidae ) or Era of the Two States. However, due to the fact that the Balhae territory largely covered lands outside of Korea (Manchuria and Siberia) and that its population was largely composed of various ethnic groups with only the elite claiming descent from historical Goguryeo, most scholars do not consider it a Korean state proper.
Balhae was squeezed between two powerful neighbours, the Unified Silla Kingdom and China, but this did not prevent it from pursuing a vigorously independent foreign policy. For example, Dae Jo-yeong's successor Mu (r. 719-737 CE) conquered the Hamhung plain and Hamggyong coastal area from the Silla. This necessitated the latter building a series of fortifications to protect its northern frontier. In 732 CE Balhae even attacked by sea the Chinese port of Dengzhou as retaliation for Tang support of the troublesome Amur River Malgal tribe. In 733 CE the Silla kingdom, as it had done half a century earlier, formed a military alliance with the Tang Dynasty to try and quash a rival kingdom. This time, though, the northern mountains proved too hostile an environment and the joint Silla-Tang expedition failed with Silla losing half of its army amongst the snowy peaks.
ARTS & CULTURE
The Balhae kingdom reached the height of its prosperity under Dae Insu (aka King Seong, r. 818-830 CE) when it expanded the territory under its control to the Amur River. The realm benefitted from the fertile agricultural land of the Manchurian plains and thus was able to support a population of around 500,000. Rice was difficult to cultivate in the colder climate, and so the most common crops were barley, millet and beans. Unfortunately, there are very few surviving artefacts or literature from the period, but we do know that the arts flourished, notably Balhae poetry, some examples of which survive, largely those taken by Balhae diplomats to Japan. Balhae also manufactured a prized purple porcelain. Tomb -paintings show a greater degree of Tang influence than Korean, although the tombs themselves – earth domes over a stone-lined chamber – are of Goguryeo origin. Such was the prosperity and artistic accomplishment in Balhae that in China the state became known as the 'Flourishing State East of the Sea'.
Balhae Stele Depicting Buddha
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Despite the occasional breakout of hostilities, trade links were established with both of Balhae's immediate neighbours and with Japan. Such was the regularity of trade with its southern neighbour that a trade route with 39 stations wound down from Balhae to Silla. Diplomatic missions were sent by Silla in 792 CE and 812 CE. Cultural ties were also strong with China, as they had always been with Korea in general. Balhae exported metals and horses while China sent books and fine manufactured goods in return. Administration, laws, education, literature, and art all followed Chinese lines or displayed a marked influence. In return, Balahe sent students both for study and to enter the exams of the Tang administration. Buddhismwas adopted, as it had been in the earlier Korean kingdoms, and Confucian principles were applied to the state's system of administration.
Japan, though, remained Balhae's staunchest ally with the Japanese sending 13 diplomatic embassies and Balhae 35 in return over the decades. Trade flourished with Japan exporting textiles and Balhae furs, silk, and hemp cloth. The two states plotted to invade Silla with a joint army. The first attack in 733 CE involved a large Japanese fleet but came to nothing, and the planned invasion of 762 never got off the generals' map board.
COLLAPSE
In 926 CE, Balhae came to an abrupt end when it was conquered by the Mongolian Khitans (aka Qidan). Balhae sent a plea for aid from their Japanese allies in 929 CE, but none was offered. The suddenness of the collapse is variously ascribed by scholars to the inherent social split between the elite of Korean descent and the local ethnic tribal masses, by the prolonged period of peace which preceded and perhaps softened the state and military, or even the devastating volcanic eruption of Paektu-san which severely damaged the capital.
After the fall many of the Korean population fled south to Silla, but the Unified Kingdom was itself overrun by what became known as the Goryeo (Kuryo) Dynasty. The latter claimed, as Balhae had done, that they were the true inheritors of ancient Goguryeo of the Three Kingdoms period (1st century BCE to 7th century CE) and proceeded to conquer all of the Korean peninsula, including the southern parts of the old Balhae territories.
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Terracotta Army › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Terracotta Army refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The purpose of the army was likely to act as guardian figures for the tomb or to serve their ruler in the next life. The site was discovered in 1974 CE, and the realistic army figures provide a unique insight into ancient Chinese warfare from weapons to armour or chariot mechanics to command structures. Shi Huangdi was desperate for immortality, and in the end, his terracotta army of over 7000 warriors, 600 horses, and 100 chariots has given him just that, at least in name and deed. The site of the mausoleum is a UNESCO World Heritage Site even if the inner tomb itself has yet to be excavated.
CHINA'S FIRST EMPEROR
Shi Huangdi (also known as Shi Huangti ) was the king of Wei, who unified China from 221 CE and then founded the Qin state. He ruled as China's first emperor until his death in 210 BCE. His reign was short but packed full of incidents, most of them infamous enough to earn Shi Huangdi a lasting reputation as a megalomaniac despot. The period saw the building of the Great Wall of China, the infamous Burning of the Books, where thousands of literary and philosophical works were destroyed, and the construction of a sumptuous royal palace. The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, a quest no doubt given further motivation by his survival of three assassination attempts. Scientists were given the task of discovering life-prolonging elixirs, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals.
HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF WORKERS WERE SET THE TASK OF BUILDING THE BIGGEST TOMB EVER SEEN IN CHINA'S HISTORY.
Failing in these endeavours to unnaturally prolong his life Shi Huangdi fell back on the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole massive project was begun in the early years of his reign as it required a prodigious amount of work to get it ready. An administrative district was established at the site with 30,000 families forcibly relocated there and given the task of building the biggest tomb ever seen in China's history or anyone else's. Eventually, no doubt as Huangdi realised time was running short, hundreds of thousands of forced labourers were sent to push the project to completion. One way or another, Shi Huangdi was going to be remembered long after his reign. The Terracotta Army seems to have achieved that goal.
HUANGDI'S MAUSOLEUM
The mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, actually an entire multi- burial complex which covers an incredible 35 to 60 square kilometres, was discovered in 1974 CE buried at the foot of the artificial Mt. Li near Lishan (modern Lintong), 50 km east of the Qin capital Xianyang in Shaanxi Province, central China. The tomb itself remains unexcavated but its spectacular army of terracotta defenders has, in part, been revealed and already earned the site the title of “Greatest Tomb in the World”. The tumulus of the buried tomb takes the form of a three-stepped pyramid, measures an impressive 1,640 metres in circumference, 350 metres along each side, and rising to a height of 60 metres. The whole is surrounded by a double wall.
The Terracotta Army
Legend has it that the tomb contains vast riches but includes fiendish traps to ensure Huangdi rests forever in peace. The traps and the interior were described by the historian Sima Qian (146-86 BCE) in the following passage from his Shiji :
More than 700,000 convict labourers from the world were sent there. They dug through three springs, poured in liquid bronze, and secured the sarcophagus. Houses, officials, unusual and valuable things were moved in to fill it. He [Shi Huangdi] ordered artisans to make crossbows triggered by mechanisms. Anyone passing before them would be shot immediately. They used mercury to create rivers, the Jiang and the He, and the great seas, wherein the mercury was circulated mechanically. On the ceiling were celestial bodies and on the ground geographical features. (Shelach-Lavi, 318)
The floor map with its geographical models and painted universe ceiling were symbolic of the emperor's status as Son of Heaven and God's ruler on earth. Qian also notes that members of Huangdi's harem were entombed with their dead emperor and many craftsmen and labourers, too, in order to keep the fabulous wealth of Huangdi's grave goods a secret for all time.
THE TERRACOTTA WARRIORS
To protect his tomb or perhaps even to ensure he had a handy bodyguard in the next life, Shi Huangdi went a whole lot better than his predecessors. Rulers in ancient China commonly had two or three statues to stand as guardians outside their tombs but Huangdi went for a whole army of them. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated - 1.5 km distant from the mausoleum - is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the tumulus. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated with only three of its four pits having been fully explored by archaeologists.
Chinese Terracotta Warrior
The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 metres and is 4 to 6 metres deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The pit, originally with wooden columns supporting a wood beam ceiling, is partitioned by 10 brick-lined corridors. The floor was made from compacted earth which was then paved with over 250,000 ceramic tiles. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had some 1,400 figures in it. In keeping with an obvious attempt to recreate exactly a real army, pit 3, measuring 21 x 17 metres, contains commanders and resembles a command post in the field.
Besides infantry, the army includes 600 horses and almost 100 chariots which carry officers and riders and have either a two, three, or four-horse team. The soldiers were set in regular rows and are depicted in different postures - most are standing while some are crouching. Their mix and particular arrangement of officers (slightly taller than everyone else with their general being tallest of all), cavalry, crossbowmen, skirmishers, archers, charioteers, and grooms give the illusion of a complete battlefield army ready for action. There are light infantry units with archers positioned at the flanks and front, the heavy infantry behind them, while chariots bring up the rear with their officers, matching the troop deployments mentioned in ancient military treatises.
The scale of the enterprise must have required a huge quantity of firewood to fuel the pottery kilns that made the figures, not to mention the countless tons of clay from local deposits needed to make figures weighing up to 200 kilos each. Besides the breathtaking finished result, the undertaking was a triumph of organisation and planning.
Chariot, Terracotta Army
Much effort was made to render each figure unique despite them all being made from a limited repertoire of assembled body parts made from moulds. These parts are 7.5 cm thick and consist of a head, torso, leg, another leg acting as a plinth, two arms and two hands. Faces and hair, in particular, were modified to give the illusion of a real army composed of unique individuals, even if in reality there are only eight types of torso and head. Hands, too, were modified with straight or bent fingers and changes in the angle of the thumb and wrist. The figures were not glazed but were lacquered to protect them and painted using bright colours - traces of red pigment remain on some figures. It is astonishing to reflect that all of this almost infinite variety and realism was never intended to be seen by anyone.
Each figure would have held a weapon of some sort, probably real ones such as swords, halberds, spears, bows and crossbows, but most of these have long since been stolen, valued as they would have been for their bronze. Those swords still in place had kept their sharp edges, and each was inscribed with their manufacturer and supervisor. The warriors have seven variations of Qin armour which is (in imitation) typically in the form of riveted or joined panels of leather or metal, a design and materials confirmed by rare archaeological finds elsewhere and in text descriptions and other art forms such as tomb-paintings elsewhere. Some infantry do not wear armour, and shields are another notable missing item, despite evidence of their use in Qin armies from other sources. They, too, may have been stolen in antiquity as some figures do appear to have been holding an item in each hand.
OTHER ARTEFACTS
Other non-terracotta artefacts discovered at the site as archaeologists work their way ever-closer to the central tomb area include half-size bronze and wood chariots pulled by teams of four bronze horses, and bronze sculptures of birds, notably 3 very fine cranes, 20 swans, and 20 geese, all set up by a 60-metre long pond to recreate a river scene. There is a replica of a stable, foundations of temple structures, and pottery storage jars within a granary building. There is an armoury measuring 100 x 130 metres packed with hundreds of replicas of armour and helmets, each piece meticulously made from hundreds of small stone pieces. There are tombs of other royal family members and high-ranking officials and statues representing them, including one tomb of a court acrobat.
Then there is a long list of real objects, not simply models. These include 31 exotic birds and animals each buried in their own wood coffin, real horses (300 in one pit alone) and the skeletons of over one hundred humans with accompanying bronze plaques indicating they were labourers and convicts who died while working on the tomb. All of these items taken collectively, along with their particular layout and the idea of the map and sky of the inner tomb, were designed to demonstrate that China's first emperor ruled, if not the whole world, then certainly the central and most important part of it in Chinese eyes.
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