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Greek Colonization › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
In the first half of the first millennium BCE, ancient Greek city -states, most of which were maritime powers, began to look beyond Greece for land and resources, and so they founded colonies across the Mediterranean. Trade contacts were usually the first steps in the colonization process and then, later, once local populations were subdued or included within the colony, cities were established. These could have varying degrees of contact with the homeland, but most became fully independent city-states, sometimes very Greek in character, in other cases culturally closer to the indigenous peoples they neighboured and included within their citizenry. One of the most important consequences of this process, in broad terms, was that the movement of goods, people, art, and ideas in this period spread the Greek way of life far and wide to Spain, France, Italy, the Adriatic, the Black Sea, and North Africa. In total then, the Greeks established some 500 colonies which involved up to 60,000 Greek citizen colonists, so that by 500 BCE these new territories would eventually account for 40% of all Greeks in the Hellenic World.
TRADE & RESOURCE OPPORTUNITIES
The Greeks were great sea-farers, and travelling across the Mediterranean, they were eager to discover new lands and new opportunities. Even Greek mythology included such tales of exploration as Jason and his search for the Golden Fleece and that greatest of hero travellers Odysseus. First the islands around Greece were colonized, for example, the first colony in the Adriatic was Corcyra ( Corfu ), founded by Corinth in 733 BCE (traditional date), and then prospectors looked further afield.The first colonists in a general sense were traders and those small groups of individuals who sought to tap into new resources and start a new life away from the increasingly competitive and over-crowded homeland.
THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION WAS LIKELY MORE GRADUAL & ORGANIC THAN ANCIENT SOURCES WOULD SUGGEST.
Trade centres and free markets ( emporia ) were the forerunners of colonies proper. Then, from the mid-8th to mid-6th centuries BCE, the Greek city-states ( poleis ) and individual groups started to expand beyond Greece with more deliberate and longer-term intentions. However, the process of colonization was likely more gradual and organic than ancient sources would suggest. It is also difficult to determine the exact degree of colonization and integration with local populations. Some areas of the Mediterranean saw fully-Greek poleis established, while in other areas there were only trading posts composed of more temporary residents such as merchants and sailors. The very term 'colonization' infers the domination of indigenous peoples, a feeling of cultural superiority by the colonizers, and a specific cultural homeland which controls and drives the whole process. This was not necessarily the case in the ancient Greek world and, therefore, in this sense, Greek colonization was a very different process from, for example, the policies of certain European powers in the 19th and 20th centuries CE. It is perhaps here then, a process better described as 'culture contact' (De Angelis in Boyes-Stones et al, 51).
The establishment of colonies across the Mediterranean permitted the export of luxury goods such as fine Greek pottery, wine, oil, metalwork, and textiles, and the extraction of wealth from the land - timber, metals, and agriculture (notably grain, dried fish, and leather), for example - and they often became lucrative trading hubs and a source of slaves. A founding city ( metropolis ) might also set up a colony in order to establish a military presence in a particular region and so protect lucrative sea routes. Also, colonies could provide a vital bridge to inland trade opportunities. Some colonies even managed to rival the greatest founding cities; Syracuse, for example, eventually became the largest polis in the entire Greek world. Finally, it is important to note that the Greeks did not have the field to themselves, and rival civilizations also established colonies, especially the Etruscans and Phoenicians, and sometimes, inevitably, warfare broke out between these great powers.
MAGNA GRAECIA
Greek cities were soon attracted by the fertile land, natural resources, and good harbours of a 'New World' - southern Italy and Sicily. The Greek colonists eventually subdued the local population and stamped their identity on the region to such an extent that they called it 'Greater Greece' or Megalē Hellas, and it would become the most 'Greek' of all the colonized territories, both in terms of culture and the urban landscape with Doric temples being the most striking symbol of Hellenization. Some of the most important poleis in Italy were:
- Cumae (the first Italian colony, founded c. 740 BCE by Chalcis)
- Naxos (734 BCE, Chalcis)
- Sybaris (c. 720 BCE, Achaean/Troezen)
- Croton (c. 710 BCE, Achaean)
- Tarentum (706 BCE, Sparta )
- Rhegium (c. 720 BCE, Chalcis)
- Elea (c. 540 BCE, Phocaea)
- Thurri (c. 443 BCE, Athens )
- Heraclea (433 BCE, Tarentum)
On Sicily the main colonies included:
- Syracuse (733 BCE, founded by Corinth)
- Gela (688 BCE, Rhodes and Crete )
- Selinous (c. 630 BCE)
- Himera (c. 630 BCE, Messana)
- Akragas (c. 580 BCE, Gela)
THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF NEW COLONIES IN THE CENTRE OF THE MEDITERRANEAN MEANT THEY COULD PROSPER AS TRADE CENTRES BETWEEN THE MAJOR CULTURES OF THE TIME.
The geographical location of these new colonies in the centre of the Mediterranean meant they could prosper as trade centres between the major cultures of the time: the Greek, Etruscan, and Phoenician civilizations. And prosper they did, so much so that writers told of the vast riches and extravagant lifestyles to be seen. Empedokles, for example, described the pampered citizens and fine temples of Akragas ( Agrigento ) in Sicily as follows; "the Akragantinians revel as if they must die tomorrow, and build as if they would live forever". Colonies even established off-shoot colonies and trading posts themselves and, in this way, spread Greek influence further afield, including higher up the Adriatic coast of Italy. Even North Africa saw colonies established, notably Cyrene by Thera in c. 630 BCE, and so it became clear that Greek colonists would not restrict themselves to Magna Graecia.
Greek and Phoenician Colonization
IONIA
Greeks created settlements along the Aegean coast of Ionia (or Asia Minor ) from the 8th century BCE. Important colonies included Miletos, Ephesos, Smyrna, and Halikarnassos. Athens traditionally claimed to be the first colonizer in the region which was also of great interest to the Lydians and Persians. The area became a hotbed of cultural endeavour, especially in science, mathematics, and philosophy, and produced some of the greatest of Greek minds. Art and architectural styles too, assimilated from the east, began to influence the homeland; such features as palmed column capitals, sphinxes, and expressive 'orientalising' pottery designs would inspire Greek architects and artists to explore entirely new artistic avenues.
FRANCE & SPAIN
The main colonising polis of southern France was Phocaea which established the important colonies of Alalia and Massalia (c. 600 BCE). The city also established colonies, or at least established an extensive trade network, in southern Spain. Notable poleis established here were Emporion (by Massalia and with a traditional founding date of 575 BCE but more likely several decades later) and Rhode. Colonies in Spain were less typically Greek in culture than those in other areas of the Mediterranean, competition with the Phoenicians was fierce, and the region seems always to have been considered, at least according to the Greek literary sources, a distant and remote land by mainland Greeks.
THE BLACK SEA
The Black Sea (Euxine Sea to the Greeks) was the last area of Greek colonial expansion, and it was where Ionian poleis, in particular, sought to exploit the rich fishing grounds and fertile land around the Hellespont and Pontos. The most important founding city was Miletos which was credited in antiquity with having a perhaps exaggerated 70 colonies. The most important of these were:
- Kyzikos (founded 675 BCE)
- Sinope (c. 631 BCE)
- Pantikapaion (c. 600 BCE)
- Olbia (c. 550 BCE)
Megara was another important mother city and founded Chalcedon (c. 685 BCE), Byzantium (668 BCE), and Herakleia Pontike (560 BCE). Eventually, almost the entire Black Sea was enclosed by Greek colonies even if, as elsewhere, warfare, compromises, inter-marriages, and diplomacy had to be used with indigenous peoples in order to ensure the colonies' survival.In the late 6th century BCE particularly, the colonies provided tribute and arms to the Persian Empire and received protection in return. After Xerxes ' failed invasion of Greece in 480 and 479 BCE, the Persians withdrew their interest in the area which allowed the larger poleis like Herakleia Pontike and Sinope to increase their own power through the conquest of local populations and smaller neighbouring poleis. The resulting prosperity also allowed Herakleia to found colonies of her own in the 420s BCE at such sites as Chersonesos in the Crimea.
From the beginning of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE, Athens took an interest in the region, sending colonists and establishing garrisons. An Athenian physical presence was short-lived, but longer-lasting was an Athenian influence on culture (especially sculpture) and trade (especially of Black Sea grain). With the eventual withdrawal of Athens, the Greek colonies were left to fend for themselves and meet alone the threat from neighbouring powers such as the Royal Scythians and, ultimately, Macedon and Philip II.
Greek & Phoenician Colonies
RELATIONSHIP WITH THE HOMELAND
Most colonies were built on the political model of the Greek polis, but types of government included those seen across Greece itself - oligarchy, tyranny, and even democracy - and they could be quite different from the system in the founder, parent city. A strong Greek cultural identity was also maintained via the adoption of founding myths and such wide-spread and quintessentially Greek features of daily life as language, food, education, religion, sport and the gymnasium, theatre with its distinctive Greek tragedy and comedy plays, art, architecture, philosophy, and science. So much so that a Greek city in Italy or Ionia could, at least on the surface, look and behave very much like any other city in Greece. Trade greatly facilitated the establishment of a common 'Greek' way of life. Such goods as wine, olives, wood, and pottery were exported and imported between poleis. Even artists and architects themselves relocated and set up workshops away from their home polis, so that temples, sculpture, and ceramics became recognisably Greek across the Mediterranean.
Colonies did establish their own regional identities, of course, especially as they very often included indigenous people with their own particular customs, so that each region of colonies had their own idiosyncrasies and variations. In addition, frequent changes in the qualifications to become a citizen and forced resettlement of populations meant colonies were often more culturally diverse and politically unstable than in Greece itself and civil wars thus had a higher frequency. Nevertheless, some colonies did extraordinarily well, and many eventually outdid the founding Greek superpowers.
Silver Stater, Metapontum
Colonies often formed alliances with like-minded neighbouring poleis. There were, conversely, also conflicts between colonies as they established themselves as powerful and fully independent poleis, in no way controlled by their founding city-state.Syracuse in Sicily was a typical example of a larger polis which constantly sought to expand its territory and create an empire of its own. Colonies which went on to subsequently establish colonies of their own and who minted their own coinage only reinforced their cultural and political independence.
Although colonies could be fiercely independent, they were at the same time expected to be active members of the wider Greek world. This could be manifested in the supply of soldiers, ships, and money for Panhellenic conflicts such as those against Persia and the Peloponnesian War, the sending of athletes to the great sporting games at places like Olympia and Nemea, the setting up of military victory monuments at Delphi, the guarantee of safe passage to foreign travellers through their territory, or the export and import of intellectual and artistic ideas such as the works of Pythagoras or centres of study like Plato 's academy which attracted scholars from across the Greek world. Then, in times of trouble, colonies could also be helped out by their founding polis and allies, even if this might only be a pretext for the imperial ambitions of the larger Greek states. A classic example of this would be Athens' Sicilian Expedition in 415 BCE, officially at least, launched to aid the colony of Segesta. There was also the physical movement of travellers within the Greek world which is attested by evidence such as literature and drama, dedications left by pilgrims at sacred sites like Epidaurus, and participation in important annual religious festivals such as the Dionysia of Athens.
Different colonies had obviously different characteristics, but the collective effect of these habits just mentioned effectively ensured that a vast area of the Mediterranean acquired enough common characteristics to be aptly described as the Greek World. Further, the effect was long-lasting for, even today, one can still see common aspects of culture shared by the citizens of southern France, Italy, and Greece.
Medieval Tournament › Antique Origins
Definition and Origins
The medieval tournament was a forum for European knights where they could practise and show off their military skills in activities such as jousting or the mêlée, indulge in a bit of pageantry, display their chivalrous qualities and win both riches and glory. From the 10th to 16th century CE tournaments were the principal expression of aristocratic ideals such as chivalry and noble lineage where family arms and honour were put on the line, ladies were wooed and even national pride was at stake.
ORIGINS
Warriors have staged practice fights ever since antiquity but the medieval tournament probably developed from the cavalry riders of the Franks in the 9th century CE, who famously practised charging each other and performing manoeuvres of great skill. The organised meetings of knights in order to practice specific military skills and engage in mock cavalry battles took two principal forms:
- The tournament - a battle between two groups of mounted knights. Often called a mêlée, hastilude, tourney or tournoi.
- The joust - a one on one duel between mounted knights using wooden lances.
Over time the two expressions have become synonymous for any gathering of knights for the purposes of sport and display of pageantry and may refer to a part of, or the whole of, such an organised meeting.
The origin of the word tournament, just like that of the event itself, is obscure. The original purpose of knight gatherings was probably to practice horsemanship as riders in battle were expected to turn their steeds dramatically, or par tour in French, which may be the origin of the term tourney or tournament. Another possible origin of the name is the early convention that groups of knights would circle each other, or 'turn around', before engaging.
PHILIP II OF FRANCE FORBADE HIS SON FROM PARTICIPATING IN TOURNAMENTS BECAUSE OF THE DANGERS INVOLVED.
When exactly tournaments began is not known but their first mention in the historical record appears in a chronicle from the abbey of Saint Martin in Tours, France. Under the entry for 1066 CE there is a reference to the death of one Godfrey de Preuilly, killed in a tournament for which he rather ironically made up the rules himself. Many of the early references to tournaments suggest that they began in France. The 13th century CE chronicler Mathew Paris, for example, describes the events as Conflictus Gallicus ('the Gallic - ie French - way of fighting') and batailles francaises ('French battles'). French knights were also famous for their great skill in battle during this period which suggests they had practised hard beforehand.However, there are records of tournaments in Germany and Flanders in the first quarter of the 12th century CE, too. Perhaps introduced into England in the mid-12th century CE, and spreading into Italy at the same time, European tournaments really became popular and more spectacular events from the second half of the 12th century CE.
ORGANISATION & DEVELOPMENT
That tournaments started out as preparation for real warfare is evidenced in the early use of exactly the same weapons and armour that were used on the actual battlefield. An indicator of the realistic dangers they presented is the presence across the 'battle' site of fenced-off enclosures for knights to retreat to and recuperate. These areas are the original lists, a term which was subsequently used to refer to the entire enclosure of the more festive tournaments of later centuries.
Jousting Armour
The two groups of knights, numbering up to 200 on each side at some events, wore full armour, carried lances, swords and shields and were organised based on geographic origins; it became common for Normans and English knights to face off against a body of French knights, for example. There were marshals to ensure no foul play but as the field of conflict was usually a large one, perhaps the entire space between two villages, it is not surprising that serious wounds and fatalities were not uncommon. There were not many rules to impose, in fact, and it was not considered unfair for a group of knights to attack a single opponent or attack a knight who had lost his horse.
While honour and glory were strong motivators there was, too, the prospect of financial gain. Knights aimed to steal weapons, armour and anything else valuable that their opponent was carrying or even to capture them and demand a ransom which could be decided upon before the start. There was also a cash prize for the winning team at the end of the day's battle.
GRADUALLY THE TOURNAMENT BECAME MORE A SPECTACLE OF PAGEANTRY & NOBLE LINEAGE RATHER THAN REAL FIGHTING.
Over time the tournaments became more sophisticated and more challenging with the use of mock fortresses to be stormed, for example. Foot soldiers were employed to boost a side's chance of winning and a greater range of weapons, among which the crossbow, was used. Rulers became wary of the events as they might (and sometimes did) spill over into rebellion once a group of knights had got themselves riled up. Consequently, Richard I of England (1189-1199 CE) only permitted their organisation under license and made knights pay an entrance fee while in Germany the emperors only permitted royal persons to participate; such was the prestige which had become attached to tournaments. Philip II of France (r. 1180-1223 CE), in contrast, forbade his son from participating in tournaments because of the dangers involved.
Indeed, the unnecessary deaths which became all too common were one reason why the church consistently disapproved of tournaments in many countries and warned combatants that hell was awaiting them should they be killed therein. The Popes banned tournaments during the 12th century CE and declared that the event was outrageous as it involved all seven deadly sins. Many knights blithely ignored the church's stance, though, and there was even a tournament in London where seven cheeky knights entered a competition with each dressed up to resemble one of the sins.
Joust Re-enactment
Some tournaments did develop into real battles when retainers and spectators all joined in, which was especially likely in the case of 'revenge' matches between national groups of knights. There was even a risk from the weather: 80 German knights infamously expired from heat exhaustion in a tournament in 1241 CE. More rules were introduced by the late 13th century CE and anyone breaking them had their armour and horse confiscated or even faced imprisonment. Spectators too were obliged to leave all weapons and armour at home. To reduce fatalities, weapons were adapted such as the fitting of a three-pointed head to the lance in order to reduce the impact and swords were blunted (rebated). Such weapons became known as 'arms of courtesy' or à plaisance.
HERALDRY, HONOUR & PAGEANTRY
By the 14th century CE, the tournament had become more a spectacle of pageantry and noble lineage rather than real fighting. Especially important for social display was the magnificent first-day procession which went through the area so that knights could impress the locals with their pomp and finery. There was still some danger, of course, when knights charged at each other with long wooden lances, even if their ends were blunted. The size of the field was reduced and the greater safety meant lighter and more flamboyant armour, helmet crests and shields could be used. Skill and honour became the order of the day and so tournaments were a handy way for rulers to bolster their armies, too. As the event became more lavish, the costs rocketed and only the richest knights could afford to host them and participate.
In addition to the financial barrier, knights now had to prove their lineage as the whole event became an exercise in aristocratic display with heralds both proclaiming and carrying the contestant's heritage on banners and their coats of arms. Knights bore their coat of arms on their shield and the covering of their horse which were important identifiers to the crowd. Arms were displayed where the knights slept and on a special tree at the site of the tournament where all the competitor's arms were hung. Finally, some knights could be excluded from a tournament if they had a disreputable reputation. This may be why some knights preferred to compete anonymously.
Tournaments, then, became the best opportunity for a knight to publicly display those qualities any good knight was expected to possess:
- martial prowess ( prouesse )
- courtesy ( courtoisie )
- good breeding ( franchise )
- noble manners ( debonnaireté )
- generosity ( largesse )
In addition, and given the importance of chivalry, those who had, amongst other misdemeanours, slandered a woman, been found guilty of murder or who had been excommunicated were banned.
Medieval Tournament Scene
By now tournaments were great social events spread over several days, and they were often held to celebrate such important occasions as coronations and royal weddings or at annual gatherings of specific knight orders. Spectators set up tents around the designated fighting area, the lists, which was spread with straw or sand. There were stands for spectators, pavilions and balconies for the richest onlookers, stalls with refreshments, sellers of horses and fine clothes, intermission performances of drama with musicians and acrobats, pageants, and several banquets over the course of the event.
JOUSTING
As tournaments became more select and honour and display came to the fore, so the joust rose in prominence. Perhaps originating from the Latin juxtare ('to meet'), this one-on-one battle between lance-bearing knights within a confined space offered more possibilities to impress the audience - or even a specific lady therein - than the wild scramble over several fields of the original tournament format. The mêlée event did, though, remain a part of the overall tournament event. There were also unofficial competitions held by those knights unable to afford the now expensive tournaments proper. These were often called a 'challenge to arms' and involved a knight or small group of knights issuing an open challenge to all-comers (especially foreigners) with the contest occurring whenever the challenge was taken up.At a joust a knight set his horse at a gallop and aimed his lance at the shield or throat of his opponent. From the early 15th century CE the two knights were sometimes separated by a wooden barrier (tilt) running the length of the field which ensured they did not collide head-on. A direct hit on the chest or throat usually unseated the knight. Squires provided their master with a replacement lance if it were broken; three weapons seem to have been the norm. Lances became hollow so that they shattered more easily and were less likely to seriously injure. Indeed, complex rules developed where points were given for the number of shattered lances or hits on particular parts of the body like the visor. Mechanical shields were even developed which shattered when struck, thus clearly indicating to the crowd who had hit who first.
Swords were generally not used while still on horseback but if one knight was dismounted then the other would also leave his horse and the two could proceed in hand-to-hand combat if they wished. Maces might be employed rather than swords.Armour became specialised with sections likely to be hit (the chest and right side of the helmet) being reinforced with an extra metal plate, a heavy steel gauntlet ( manifer ) for the lance hand, a grill for the helmet visor and a saddle with protrusions to better protect the legs. If a knight wished to concede at any time then he removed his helmet.
Death of Henry II at Tournament
The victor of a joust won prizes such as a gold crown, a jewel, a horse or a falcon while less commercial recompense took the form of a certain lady's kiss or garter. The biggest prize, though, and the reason why many knights devoted a career to tournaments, was the ransom from the loser. Expected to pay a fee and donate his horse, weapons and armour, the loser was permitted to leave the field only when he gave his word or parole that he would pay up as soon as possible. One of the most successful knights at tournaments was Sir William Marshal (1146-1219 CE), whose exploits led his contemporary Archbishop of Canterbury to declare him the greatest knight that had ever lived. Sir William was the subject of a 19,000 line poem L'Histoire du Guillaume Maréchal which recounts his impressive rags to riches story and undefeated record in jousts.Just as tournaments had originally been practice sessions for war, so knights began to practice for the tournaments. A common device to hone one's lancing skills was the quintain - a rotating arm with a shield at one end and a weight at the other.A knight had to hit the shield and keep riding on to avoid being hit in the back by the weight as it swung around. Another device was a suspended ring which the knight had to catch and remove with the tip of his lance. Inexperienced knights often had their own jousting events held on the eve of a tournament proper. Such practice sessions and preparation events remained necessary both to win jousting events and survive them for it remained a dangerous sport for the unskilled despite the safety precautions.
DECLINE
In the 16th century CE fighting on foot, sometimes with the opponents separated by a low fence, became more common, as did other sporting challenges such as archery and the expensive pageantry and inherent danger of jousting brought about its slow decline. Then, when Henry II (r. 1519-1559 CE), the king of France, was killed in a joust in 1559 CE after a splinter from a shattered lance entered his visor, the tournaments lost much of their wider popularity. Tournaments continued in one form or another in some countries well into the 18th century CE and there were one-off revival tournaments in the 19th century CE but the age of chivalry and knights was by then a distant memory as firearms became the staple weapon of war.LICENSE:
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