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Kofukuji › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
Kofukuji is a Buddhist temple which was founded in 669 CE and relocated to its present location in Nara, Japan in 710 CE.It was the main Buddhist temple of the influential Fujiwara clan during the Heian Period (794-1185 CE). The temple's five-storey pagoda has become a symbol of the city which was the capital of Japan in the 8th century CE. Kofukuji is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Kofukuji temple was founded at Yamashina-dera in 669 CE but when the capital was moved to Nara in 710 CE during the reign of Empress Gemmei (r. 707-715 CE), the temple was relocated, too, buildings and all. Kofukuji, whose name means 'Temple of Happiness', became one of the cities most important temples and, at its height, boasted over 150 buildings. It was dedicated to the Hosso sect of Buddhism, which had been introduced to Japan from China c. 650 CE by the Japanese monk Dosho.
Kofukuji was the ujidera or main Buddhist family temple of the powerful Fujiwara clan, many of whose members reigned as regents and held other important government positions during the Heian Period. The monastery complex gained revenue from a designated Fujiwara estate in Bizen province and flourished, becoming a major political player in its own right as the historian G. Sansom explains,
It is symbolic of the dominant position of the clan that their monastery, the Kofukuji, was so powerful that for a time no governor was appointed to Yamato province, because this would have interfered with the almost plenary power of the Abbot of the Kofukuji. (153)
With this wealth, the monastery, like several others in ancient Japan, was able to maintain a private army of armed retainers ( sohei ) recruited from trainee monks and local mercenaries. This force allowed the Kofukuji monks to protect their landed interests and ensure their continued dominant position as an influential monastery in Japanese politics by blocking roads, obstructing emissaries, and generally making a nuisance of themselves. Indeed, by 1006 CE the complex had 3,000 armed men at its disposal, and in 1081 CE the Kofukuji army attacked rival monasteries on Mount Hiyei and Miidera, burning down the latter and looting it. In 1113 CE it is reputed that Kofukuji was able to send a 20,000-man army against its great rival monastery Enryakuji at Heiankyo (Kyoto), the new capital after Nara, following a dispute over the appointment of an administrator of a Kofukuji branch temple.
Kofukuji Temple, Nara
As the Fujiwara clan lost their stranglehold on power to rival clans such as the Taira and Minamoto, the complex suffered large-scale destruction in the first year of the Genpei War (1180-1185 CE). A Taira army led by Shigehira, fifth son of Taira clan leader Kiyomori, had attacked the monastery for supporting their rivals, the Minamoto. Rebuilding work began almost immediately afterwards, but during the medieval period the site, no longer an important religious centre, was attacked several times by marauding bands of samurai warriors.
KOFUKUJI'S MAIN PAGODA STANDS 50 METRES (164 FT) HIGH, WHICH MAKES IT THE SECOND TALLEST IN JAPAN.
The monastery was also important in Japanese theatre development as Kofukuji hosted the first recorded performance of Okina, a form of No theatre, when three monks performed a series of dances. The three priests represented three old men known as Chichi-no-jo, Okina, and Samban Sarugaku, characters associated with the Buddha, Monju, and Miroku respectively.
It was not until 1881 CE that a full restoration project began at the complex and it is still ongoing with the Central Main Hall expected to be finished by 2018 CE.
ARCHITECTURAL HIGHLIGHTS
Kofukuji once had three main halls, but today only the eastern one survives. The East Main Hall (Tokondo) was built in 1415 CE on the site of earlier versions, the first being constructed during the reign of Emperor Shomu (r. 724-749 CE). The emperor was said to have built the hall in an attempt to cure his ill aunt, which is why the building today contains a statue of Yakushi Nyorai, the Buddha of healing. Other sculptures within today's version include four guardian figures, the Shitenno of the four cardinal directions. Each figure is carved from a single tree trunk.
Southern Octagonal Hall, Kofukuji
The impressive five-storey pagoda which stands next to the East Main Hall dates to 1426 CE, built after a fire destroyed several of its predecessors, the first of which was built in 725 CE. Today's version, built copying plans of the original structure, stands 50 metres (164 ft) high, which makes it the second tallest pagoda in Japan. It is built entirely of wood and without the use of nails. The exterior is painted red and the interior left plain.
Inside the pagoda on the ground floor are several important sculptures representing Yakushi, Shaka, Amida, and Miroku Buddhas. These figures are shown in triads arranged around the central column of the building. Today, the Kofukuji pagoda has become the iconic symbol of modern Nara.
Other important structures at the site include the two distinctive octagonal halls which are usually closed to the public but do contain more Buddhist sculpture. The Northern Octagonal Hall (Hokuendo) was first built in 721 CE, while today's version dates to 1210 CE. It was erected in honour of Fujiwara no Fuhitio, one of the temple's founders. The Southern Octagonal Hall (Nanendo), first built in 813 CE but with the present version dating to 1741 CE, figures as a stopping point on the famous pilgrimage route which takes in 33 temple sites across western Japan.
Finally, there are the Treasure House (Kokuhokan), the Oyuya bath house, and a second, smaller pagoda. There is also a museum building which contains many fine examples of ancient Buddhist art including a bronze head of Yakushi Nyorai and a celebrated wood and lacquer statue of a six-armed Ashura.
This article was made possible with generous support from the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation.
Ancient Korean Coinage › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The coinage of ancient Korea (pre-13th century CE) first employed Chinese coins, known locally as the oshuchon. Korean rulers began minting their own metal coins from the late 10th century CE, first in copper and iron, and later in bronze. These coins never really gained wide circulation, though, and it would not be until the 17th century CE that coinage fully replaced the barter system prevalent throughout the peninsula. Another form of currency, in use from the 12th to 14th century CE, was the unbyong silver vase, stamped by the state and given an official rate of exchange with staple commodities such as rice; it was shaped like the peninsula of Korea.
EARLY CURRENCIES
In early Korea, the system of exchange was principally one of barter where goods were calculated as having a certain value in relation to fundamental commodities such as grain, rice, and cloth. The latter was first hemp and then more typically cotton cloth, known as cloth currency or pohwa. The first known currency used in ancient Korea which was made of metal was knife money ( ming-tao- chien ), so called because of the crescent, bladelike shape. This came with settlers from China during the Warring States period (475-221 BCE) and has been excavated at sites in the Pyongan and Cholla provinces. The Chinese also introduced coins to Korea when the Han dynasty invaded the north at the end of the 2nd century BCE. These coins became the official currency and were known as wuzhu in Chinese or oshuchon in Korean, meaning 'five-grain'. The oshuchoncontinued to be used by the two kingdoms of Goguryeo and Silla up to the 10th century CE. They are commonly found in the tombs of the Nangnang (Lelang) region.
KOREAN COINS BORE LEGENDS SUCH AS HAEDONG CHUNGBO, 'HEAVY COIN OF THE LAND EAST OF THE SEA'.
THE FIRST KOREAN MINTS
It was during the Goryeo Dynasty (918 – 1392 CE) that Korea first produced its own coins. These early coins, minted from 996 CE, imitated those of the earlier Chinese Tang dynasty (618 – 907 CE) and were made of iron and copper. Even the 'heavy coin of the Qianyuan period' inscription was translated from the Chinese ( Qianyuan zhongbao ) to the Korean Konwonchungbo. They did add an identifying 'Eastern kingdom' ( Tongkuk ) on the reverse side of the coin. As with Chinese coins, the Korea coins had a square central hole.
In 1097 CE and 1102 CE copper coins were minted by the Goryeo king, Sukjong. These carried uniquely Korean inscriptions but still continued with the distinctive Chinese square hole design. Marked on one side with the familiar tongbo ('circulating treasure') or chungbo ('heavy treasure'), the other side carried one of the following possible legends identifying them as of Goryeo Korea:
- Tongguk tongbo – 'Coin of the Eastern Kingdom'
- Tongguk chungbo – 'Heavy coin of the Eastern Kingdom'
- Haedong tongbo – 'Coin of the Land East of the Sea'
- Haedong chungbo – 'Heavy coin of the Land East of the Sea'
- Samhan tongbo – 'Coin of the Three Hans'
- Samhan chungbo – 'Heavy coin of the Three Hans'
These legends were written in four types of script – the clerical, regular, seal, and cursive. Once again, tombs (eg at Kaesong) have been the best source of ancient coins for archaeologists and historians to study.
SILVER VASES
An alternative to coins as a form of payment was the unbyong (aka hwalgu ) silver vases which were made from 1101 CE. The vases took the shape of the Goryeo empire and were marked as legitimate currency by having the official state seal engraved on them. Naturally, the vases contained a great deal of silver (600 g or one kun ) and so were only useful for large payments.Historians also suggest that they were used primarily by aristocrats and for bribing officials. Unfortunately, no examples survive, but we do know from a 1282 CE law that the value of one unbyong was fixed at between 2,700 and 3,400 litres of rice.Despite their impracticality for smaller transactions, the vases continued to be used over the next two centuries, until King Chungyol permitted rough or broken pieces of silver to be used instead at the end of the 13th century CE. By 1331 CE the small vases shaped liked Korea itself were no longer in use.
Bronze Korean Coin, Goryeo Dynasty
CHINESE & PAPER MONEY
No further coins were minted in Korea until the 15th century CE, and as in earlier periods, Chinese coins were imported and used instead. The Sinan shipwreck, which was discovered in waters off the coast of South Korea in 1976 CE, dates to the Song Dynasty (10th - 13th century CE) and contained 26,775 kg of Chinese coins destined for use in ancient Korea.
The Korean state did produce paper money in the 14th century CE, but it was never issued. Another attempt was made in the 15th century CE when notes were made from the high-quality hanji paper for which Korea was famous throughout Asia.Traders also accepted Chinese banknotes during the Middle Kingdom period. However, banknotes were generally only used to pay taxes, and they struggled to catch on in Korea, where metal coins were used, and trusted, far more widely. No paper money survives from this period.
This article was made possible with generous support from the British Korean Society.
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