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Qin Dynasty › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Qin dynasty was brief in duration (221-206 BCE) but very important in Chinese history. It followed the Zhou dynasty(1046-256 BCE) and it ended when Liu Bang became the king of Han in 206 BCE (the formal beginning of the Han dynasty ).Despite its brevity, the Qin dynasty left important marks on Chinese culture. In fact, the name " China " is derived from the name Qin (“Ch'in” in former Romanization systems). Following the Zhou Dynasty, China became involved in a seemingly endless conflict between the various regions for supreme control of the country. This period of conflict has come to be known as The Warring States period (426-221 BCE). A series of victories by the state of Qin towards the end of the Warring States period resulted in their complete conquest of China in 221 BCE when the Qin empire unified China for the first time in its history.
ORIGINS OF THE QIN KINGDOM
During the Zhou dynasty China was never a unified kingdom: The Zhou government bore a strong resemblance to some of the forms of feudalism in medieval Europe, which is why the Zhou age is sometimes referred to as a feudal age. China was composed of a network of city -states loyal to the Zhou king, from which military and political control spread over the surrounding farming villages.
About 771 BCE, a barbarian invasion drove the Zhou rulers eastwards. During this time, the state of Qin became responsible for guarding the western frontier and they gradually moved eastward and eventually occupied the original Zhou domains. Thus the Qin became a close ally of the Zhou and they also had marriage relations with the Zhou ruling class. King Ping of Zhou (r. 770-720 BCE) transferred titles of the nobility and huge estates to the chief of Qin. Many Chinese historians consider this event as pivotal for the state of Qin. Qin was, at that time, very aware of the fact that they could be a great power. The elevation to nobility of the Qin meant that the Qin could become more ambitious and better fend off attacks from surrounding regions. As a consequence, these centuries spent fighting non-Chinese tribes helped the Qin gain invaluable experience in warfare and territorial expansion.
Of the many Chinese states, Qin had the advantage of a favourable location: Its territory in modern Shaanxi province is well guarded from the east by mountains and gorges and has easy access to the North China plain through the Yellow River passes. No major battle ever took place in Qin's heartland.
WHAT FINALLY GAVE THE QIN VICTORY OVER THE OTHER STATES WAS THEIR RUTHLESSNESS IN BATTLE.
During the Warring States period, all the states in China were trying to draw more power and prestige to themselves. The states of Qin and Chu were the strongest which was due, in part, to the locations of these two states being able to command vast resources. They were also able to expand their borders without fear of immediate conflict, unlike the other states, and so could obtain still further resources. This benefit, and others such as the size of the Qin army and their expert use of the chariot, contributed to their success in warfare. The Qin had all of the resources and advantages but what finally gave them victory over the other states was their ruthlessness in battle. The Qin statesman Shang Yang (356-338 BCE) advocated total war and a disregard for the polite policies of battle which Chinese generals had always adhered to. His lessons were implemented by Ying Zheng, King of Qin, who emerged victorious from the Warring States period and proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi - `first emperor' - of China in 221 BCE. About 230 BCE, when the final campaign to unify China began, it is estimated that Qin controlled one-third of all the land under cultivation in China and one-third of China's total population.
ACHIEVEMENTS IN THE QIN DYNASTY
Early in the Qin Empire, the practice of Legalism reached its peak in Chinese history. This idea of state policy was devised by Shang Yang who came to Qin as a foreign advisor. Qin was lacking, early on, in skilled intellectuals and politicians and, therefore, had to look beyond its borders for talented people. Shang Yang was one of those foreign talented persons and he would have a lasting influence on the Qin Empire. During his time as minister, Shang Yang radically renovated the policies of government but, in fact, he simply revived a practice which was already present for years: a form of government with a focus on greater efficiency and less adherence to tradition in which strict adherence to the letter of the law was made paramount (hence the name `Legalism'). Emperor Shi Huangdi approved of Shang Yang's policies and implemented them across his realm.
The Great Wall of China
This form of government consisted of a collectivization program and the decimation of aristocratic power. Farmers were freed from serfdom and Shi Huangdi reduced the power of the aristocracy. The people throughout the empire were now supposed to bear collective responsibility for each other. If a person did not behave according to the rules then others were required to report him. If they did not do this, they were quartered or beheaded. Fear and control were the key features of this political system. In addition, one's personal importance to the empire was also a key element. If you, as a person, meant nothing to the state, you actually meant nothing objectively; your life was meaningless. Those who contributed the most to the state were highly rewarded while those whose lives were considered of no consequence were sent to work as slaves on Shi Huangdi's building projects such as the Great Wall of China, the Grand Canal, and the roads which increased ease of trade and travel.
Another result of the Legalism of Shi Huangdi was that scholarship was strongly suppressed and literacy denied to the majority of the populace. Shi Huangdi believed that uneducated people were easier to control and so the people should remain stupid so that they would never think to doubt who was in charge of the empire. This policy resulted in the burning of books on a large scale and, in 212 BCE, on the advice of his chief advisor Li Siu, Shi Huangdi had scholars executed on a large scale. Books were banned throughout the empire, as was teaching, except for subjects touching upon the re-written history of the Qin Dynasty, Legalism, or the personal glory of Shi Huangdi. It was not until the later Han Dynasty that books were recovered from hiding and repaired, and literacy was again available to the people of China.
Although Shi Huangdi and Shang Yang's Legalism (as well as Li Siu's policies) were hated by many at the time (and have been generally frowned upon by scholars of the period), later Qin kings and emperors of China were well aware of the strong impact that Legalism had on the efficiency and strength of the state. Legalism helped to create a superior army, a disciplined bureaucracy, an obedient populace, and the unquestioned authority of a strong central government. This bureaucratic model became the standard for the Chinese government and is still maintained in some form today. Although Confucianism was preferred in later dynasties, Legalism continued to exert a strong influence in China. It was often the case that the harsh Legalism was glossed over with just a different name and, quite often, as `Confucianism'.
THE END OF THE QIN EMPIRE
In the year 210 BCE emperor Shi Huangdi died on a journey through the realm. The people were told that these trips were designed for the inspection of the empire but later evidence suggests that the emperor was looking for an elixir of immortality.In his later years, Shi Huangdi became obsessed with death and the hope of eternal life. In constant fear of assassination, it is said, he never slept in the same room of his palace two nights consecutively and he ordered the construction of his elaborate tomb (including his Terracotta Army of 8,000 warriors) early on in his reign. The cause of his death is still unknown.
Li Siu (c. 280– 208 BCE), then prime minister of the recently deceased emperor, tried to hide the fact that Shi Huangdi was deceased in any possible way. He brought the emperor's body back to the capital along with carts of dead fish to mask the smell of the corpse. Along with Zhao Gao (died 208/207 BCE) Li Siu contrived to place Hu Hai on the throne. Hu Hai was the weak second son of Shi Huangti. Due to the weakness of Hu Hai, the oppressed people of China grew bolder and soon began to revolt.
Through a series of uprisings and rebel alliances, Qin authority was overthrown in the year 206 BCE in the capital of Xianyang.The imperial house was massacred and the Qin dynasty was thus at an end. A complicated series of battles followed for the honour of being the successor to the Qin Dynasty which resulted in the period known as the Chu-Han Contention in which Xiang-Yu of the state of Chu fought Liu Bang of Han for supremacy. Liu Bang emerged victorious following Xiang-Yu's defeat at the Battle of Gaixia in 202 BCE. Liu Bang (247 BCE- 195 BCE) was applauded as a man of the people and, after his victory, founded the Han dynasty.
LEGACY OF THE QIN DYNASTY
As mentioned previously, Legalism had a lasting effect on the entirety of Chinese history. The Qin Dynasty created the standard of bureaucratic government and the Legalistic policies first initiated by the Qin are still seen in China today. In addition, the dynasty left a wonder of ancient artwork: the Terracotta Army in Xi'an. This tomb reflects the character of the Chinese emperor and his unending desire to be immortal. The terracotta army also exemplifies what Chinese society at that time was able to produce once it had been formed as a state. The most famous legacy left by the Qin is The Great Wall of China. Although the present structure does not date from the Qin Dynasty, it was begun under Shi Huangdi, as was the Grand Canal, and the roads which today link the cities of China and the countryside. The Qin did more than just found a dynasty in China: they brought a continent together.
Gyeongju › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
Gyeongju (Kyongju), formerly known as Sorabol or Saro, was the capital of the Silla kingdom of ancient Korea from the 1st century BCE to the 10th century CE. Located in the south-east of the Korean peninsula, at its peak in the 9th century CE Gyeongju boasted 1 million inhabitants and 180,000 homes. The city today still has significant archaeological remains including the Cheomseongdae observatory, Bulguksa temple, Seokguram Grotto, pagodas, and many huge earth-mound royal tombs within which spectacular gold crowns and jewellery pieces have been excavated, fully justifying the capital's other name of Kumsong or 'City of Gold.'
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Silla ruled south-eastern Korea during the Three Kingdoms period from the 1st century BCE to 7th century CE and the whole of the Korean peninsula from 668 to 935 CE. The traditional founding date of the Silla kingdom (often Ko-Silla - 'Old Silla' - to distinguish it from the later unified period) was, according to the 12th-century CE Samguk sagi ('Historical Records of the Three States'), 57 BCE but this is unlikely to be accurate and modern historians prefer a later date when describing the Silla as a single political entity. The kingdom first developed when Chinhan tribes in south-eastern Korea formed a confederacy. The traditional founder figure is Hyeokgeose (aka Pak Hyokkose, r. 57 BCE - 4 CE) who, once he was born from a magical scarlet egg, merged six villages or clans and founded his fortified capital at Saro on the Gyeongju plain, later to become known as Kumsong (modern Gyeongju/Kyongju). The capital, Saro, gave the kingdom its first name (also known as Sorabol meaning 'Eastern Land') which was changed to Silla during the reign of king Beopheung (aka Pophung, r. 514-540 CE) when a greater degree of centralisation was achieved.
THE ROYAL PALACE AT GYEONGJU WAS LOCATED INSIDE THE WOLSEONG FORTRESS WHICH INCLUDED AN ARTIFICIAL LAKE & MENAGERIE OF EXOTIC BIRDS & ANIMALS.
The royal palace at Gyeongju was located inside the Wolseong fortress (aka Banwolseong) which was greatly extended in the 6th and 7th centuries CE with an artificial lake added known as the Anap-chi (Lake of wild geese and ducks) complete with a menagerie of exotic birds and animals. It is likely that the famous 7th-century CE Cheomseongdae observatory tower, built in the reign of Queen Seondeok (632-647 CE), was the centrepiece of an entire scientific district, such was the importance given to the effect of celestial bodies on human affairs in Korean culture. Gyeongju became a centre of culture, arts, and science, with a particular flourishing in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology.
During the reign of King Munmu (661-681 CE) the city was redesigned in imitation of Chinese cities (notably Chang'an) and laid out on a north-south grid pattern. According to the 13th-century text the Samguk yusa ('Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms'), Gyeongju was split into 55 districts and 1,360 residential quarters. With a population of 1 million by the 9th century CE, the city boasted 178,936 homes, plus workshops and temples, 35 private estates, and four royal palaces – one for each season of the year. Members of the aristocracy were said to employ as many as 3,000 slaves on their estates, and their lavish parties were infamous throughout the kingdom. Although these figures may be exaggerated there is ample archaeological evidence that the city was indeed large with grand market squares, parks, and artificial lakes. As a further sign of the wealth and prosperity of the city, many of these buildings were tiled with ceramic tiles as opposed to thatch.
Daeungjeon Hall, Bulguksa
Gyeongju was not only the political capital of the Silla kingdom but it was also its religious centre. Temples like the sprawling 8th-century CE Bulguksa complex, known as the ' Temple of the Buddha Land,' the Seokguram Grotto containing a huge statue of the Buddha, the Hwangnyong ('Temple of the Imperial Dragon'), Punhwang ('Fragrant Imperial Temple'), countless pagodas, and the presence of most of the relics of Buddhism meant Gyeongju was also an important site of pilgrimage from believers across the kingdom. This and the strong influence of the local aristocratic clans meant that Gyeongju continued to serve as the nation's capital even when the Silla kingdom ruled all of Korea from 668 CE, and this despite its somewhat inconvenient location in the south-east corner of the country.
With the fall of the Unified Silla kingdom in the first decades of the 10th century CE the Korean peninsula divided again into the Later Three kingdoms. Gung Ye (d. 918 CE), the tyrannical leader of the Later Goguryeo ( Koguryo ) kingdom, declared that Gyeongju should become the 'City of Destruction.' The city suffered the same fate in 927 CE when it was sacked by the Later Baekje king Gyeon Hwon (867-936 CE) and the Silla king Kyongae was executed.
Although the city never regained its former glory it did continue as a seat ( pongwan ) of the Gyeongju aristocratic clans and, for a time, was made the eastern capital of the Goryeo (Kuryo) kingdom which ruled Korea from 918 to 1392 CE. The city's architecture suffered further blows during the 13th-century CE Mongol invasions – in which the famed nine-story wooden pagoda of the Hwangyongsa temple was destroyed – and again during the Japanese occupation at the end of the 16th century CE when the Bulguksa temple was razed to the ground.
Gold Silla Crown
ARCHITECTURE
Tombs
Gyeongju today has many mound tombs dating to the Silla period, the majority of which have yet to be excavated. Typical Silla tombs of the Three Kingdoms period are composed of a wooden chamber set in an earth pit which was then covered with a large pile of stones and a mound of earth. To make the tomb waterproof, layers of clay were applied between the stones.Many tombs contain multiple burials, sometimes as many as ten individuals. The lack of an entrance has meant that many more Silla tombs have survived intact in respect to the other two kingdoms and so provided treasures from golden crowns to jade jewellery. The largest such tomb, actually composed of two mounds and containing a king and queen, is the Hwangnam Taechong tomb. Dating to the 5-7th century CE, the tomb measures 80 x 120 m, and its mounds are 22 and 23 m high.
Cheomseongdae
One of the most famous surviving ancient structures at Gyeongju is the mid-7th-century CE Cheomseongdae observatory. It was built during the reign of Queen Seondeok as part of a larger complex dedicated to science and astronomy in the city. Nine metres tall and incorporating 365 granite blocks in 27 layers, it acted like a sundial but also has a south-facing window which captures the sun's rays on the interior floor on each equinox. Originally there may also have been an armillary sphere (model of celestial bodies) on top of the tower. It is the oldest surviving observatory in East Asia and is listed as no. 31 on the official list of National Treasures of Korea.
Cheomseongdae Observatory, Gyeongju
Bulguksa Temple
The Bulguksa Temple (aka Pulguk-sa Temple or 'Temple of the Buddha Land') was built in the 8th century CE on the wooded slopes of Mt. Tohamsan. The chief architect of Bulguksa is traditionally credited as Kim Dae-seong (700-774 CE), the Chief Minister or chungsi of the Unified Silla kingdom. As its name suggests it was designed to represent the land of Buddha, that is paradise. The temple complex, which includes a lotus lake and several bridges besides its three main halls, was so large and built with such precise mathematical and geometrical considerations that it took almost 40 years to complete, beginning with the traditional start date of 751 CE and finishing in 790 CE.
Although the original wooden buildings of Bulguksa are replacements for those originals destroyed by fire, the complex does have two original stone pagodas – the Dabotap (Tabo-tap or 'Pagoda of Many Treasures') and Seokgatap (Sokka-tao or 'Pagoda that Casts No Shadow') – which both traditionally date to 751 CE. Excavation around the latter pagoda in 1966 CE brought to light a sarira (reliquary casket) containing the world's oldest woodblock-printed document, a copy of the Dharani sutra.
Seokguram Grotto
Near the Bulguksa temple, set into the upper south-eastern slopes of the Tohamsan mountain, is the Seokguram Grotto (Sokkuram). This Buddhist cave temple was constructed as an artificial grotto between 751 and 774 CE, again by Kim Dae-seong. The circular inner chamber has a domed roof and a white granite statue of the Sakyamuni Buddha which is 3.45 metres high. The walls of the grotto are decorated with 41 figure sculptures set in niches. Seokguram features at position no.24 on the official state list of National Treasures of Korea and it, along with the Bulguksa temple, has been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
This article was made possible with generous support from the British Korean Society.
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