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Korean Pottery › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The pottery of ancient Korea stretches back to prehistory when simple brown wares were made and decorated with geometrical incisions. Potters would benefit from the ideas and techniques of their Chinese counterparts and go on to produce their own highly sought-after works, including grey stoneware, celadons or greenware, buncheong ware and white porcelain.Ceramics are innovative in design and range from impossibly intricate incense burners to the sublime simplicity and elegance of the maebyeong vase. Korean pottery decoration typically employs plants, flowers, and wildlife, and reflects the country's religious heritage with Buddhist motifs and minimalist Confucian designs taking precedence.
PREHISTORIC POTTERY
Early Korean pottery from the Neolithic period, especially in the form of brown bowls with either a flat or pointed base, both with incised decoration, show a cultural link with communities in the Liaoning province and Liaodong peninsula of China. The most common decoration of this period is zigzag or comb-like incisions which have given the name to a type of pottery: comb wares ( chulmun ). Some vessels have square spiral incisions while others have raised decorations achieved by pinching the clay.
Korean Bronze Age pottery tends to be undecorated, walls are thicker, and there is a greater variety of shapes - typically steamers, bowls with pedestals, and jars with handles. When there is decoration, it covers less of the vessel and takes either the form of the incised motifs of the previous period or applied clay bands. Burnished wares are either black (long-necked jars) or red (small bulbous jars). These are, once again, indicative of contact with China.
Korean Neolithic Pot
Iron Age pottery is of a grey type with paddle and incised decoration, especially close hatching. A typical form of this period is the round-bottomed jar which has a small foot and distinctive small handles on the neck in the form of horns. Another interesting shape is the square cup set on a pedestal which is then lacquered black. It is clear that potters are becoming more skilled and more ambitious in their designs, setting the groundwork for the finer vessels to come in the Three Kingdoms period.
GREY STONEWARE
High-fired grey stoneware was produced by the Baekje, Gaya, and Silla kingdoms (little Goguryeo pottery survives) from the 1st century BCE to the 10th century CE. Typical forms are the stemmed cup, bowls with wide stands ( kobae ), long-necked jars ( changgyong ho ), round, lidded cups with a wide foot base known as kobae, horned cups, stands ( kurut pachim) used to support large bowls, tall bulbous vases (sometimes with pierced stands), lamps, and bell cups which have small pieces of clay inside a hollow lower section so that they rattle when lifted, and spouted figure-vessels representing animals, boats, temples, horse-riding warriors, and even houses. Ceramics were decorated with incisions, applying additional clay pieces, and cutting away the clay to create a latticework effect.
Stoneware requires a high firing temperature, and this technology was, no doubt, connected to the furnaces required to produce iron in the Gaya confederation which was rich in that metal. Gaya potters likely passed on this innovation to Japan, where the famous sueki (or sue ) stoneware would be produced as a result. Baekje potters also produced low-fired pottery, light brown in colour. Bulbous jars, footed vessels, tripods, and roof tiles are common shapes.
Silla Ceramic Warrior
As the Three Kingdoms period gave way to the Unified Silla period (668-935 CE), Korean pottery began to display a marked influence from Buddhism. Cremation necessitated the manufacture of urns for ashes and Buddhist motifs prevail as stamped decoration such as lotus buds, lotus flowers, and clouds. Everyday pottery was left undecorated, but special pieces show a greater density of decoration than previously and there are even some human figures such as musicians playing the kayagum(zither). There is, too, the first ash glaze which would develop into the later celadon ceramics of the Goryeo period.
THE POPULARITY & ESTEEM WITH WHICH CELADONS WERE HELD ARE ATTESTED BY THEIR PRESENCE IN ROYAL KOREAN TOMBS.
CELADON
The celadon (or greenware) ceramics produced during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392 CE), are regarded as some of the finest and most elegant pottery pieces produced anywhere. They are typified by their pale green lustre reminiscent of jade and a super smooth glaze. First produced in China, celadon quickly gained popularity across Asia and in Korea specifically from the 9th century CE when there was increased contact with the Song Dynasty. It may be that the colour association with precious jade was another reason for celadon's success. The green colour is achieved by firing the clay in an oxygen-reducing kiln with a glaze containing a low percentage of iron oxide ( cheolhwa ). The method gives an extremely smooth surface to the finished vessel, although many fine cracks in the glaze are typical, even desirable.
Initially, the Korean wares were rather crude, but by the 12th century CE Korean celadon ceramics were even finer than those produced in China. The popularity and esteem with which celadons were held are attested by their presence in royal Korean tombs. With the Mongol invasions of the peninsula and the systematic destruction of workshops in the 13th century CE production of celadons was, unfortunately, brought to a halt.
Dragon-turtle Celadon
Vases, jugs, and bowls were the most popular shapes for celadons and the quintessential form was the tall vase with a narrow base and bulbous neck known as a maebyeong. Potters also produced a myriad of other items such as ceramic pillows, pitchers in the form of monks or mythical dragonfish creatures, incense burners topped by animal figures through whose mouths the incense smoke exits, cosmetic boxes, water droppers ( kundika, used to sprinkle water in Buddhist ceremonies), and even curvaceous roof tiles were all executed with the finesse seen in more classical vessels.
Vessels were decorated with low or high relief designs, especially floral patterns using the lotus leaf and flower, peony and chrysanthemum flowers, grapevines, and birds such as waterfowl. Many motifs, especially cranes and clouds, are associated with Buddhism. Vessels left undecorated often have simple linear designs engraved on them while others have more intricate black, red, brown, and white clay inlays in a technique unique to Korea known as sanggam. Here designs are carved on the surface and the inlays added before applying a translucent slip. Some later vessels were also inlaid with gold. The inlays are so fine and the workmanship of such a high standard that, on the finished vessel, they appear to be brush strokes. Adding a dark red colour to pick out designs or used for outlines became common in the later period of Korean celadons, achieved by using a copper underglaze - the first such instance in world ceramics. Another popular decorative effect was to add mouldings which could then also be made into openwork.
BUNCHEONG WARES
Buncheong ( punchong ) wares, blue-green ceramic covered with a white slip, are the most practical of Korea's offerings to world ceramics. They were produced in the 15th and 16 century CE during the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910 CE) and initially are very similar to celadons. Unlike other types of Korean pottery, buncheong was produced by non-state controlled potteries and so became much more eclectic and influenced by regional preferences and the wishes of the ordinary people who ordered their manufacture. Typical shapes include maebyeong vases, bulbous vases with tall necks, cylinder flasks with a single top spout, and flat turtle-shaped bottles with a small side spout. All of these served a practical use in the home.
Korean Buncheong Bottle
Buncheong designs became much busier than those on celadon wares with more of the surface used. Designs were etched onto the white slip ( johwa ) or carved into the clay with a sharp tool and then filled with white slip before firing. Sometimes stamps ( inhwa ) were used to apply simple geometrical decoration (especially in the south-east) or were applied with a brush ( kwiyal ) using a brown iron oxide underglaze, particularly popular in central provinces. Finally, white or red clay could be inlaid into the carved design (the sanggam technique used with celadon). Besides geometric forms, designs typically employ peony flowers (symbol of wealth), birds, and dots. Pairs of fish are particularly common as these represented good fortune, fertility, and happiness.
MAKSABAL & ONGGI
An off-shoot or by-product of buncheong was the humble maksabal bowl which used clay not deemed good enough for buncheong production. Maksabal means 'bowl to be used right away' which indicates their low quality, but they were, nevertheless, a means for potters to freely express their artistry. Another common vessel type purely of a functional nature are the onggi storage vases and cooking vessels. Those for storage had lids, and because of the impurities in the poor quality clay, minute holes formed in the vessels when fired. These tiny holes allow air to circulate, and so onggi were used to store foodstuffs such as soy sauce and fish paste. Onggi were also frequently buried in the ground and used as lavatories. They are often decorated with bold curved lines created by the potter using his thumbs when the glaze was still wet.
Korean Onggi Jars
WHITE PORCELAIN
Bowls, bevelled bottles, pear-shaped vases, squat bulbous jars with lids, 'Moon' jars (so-called because of their circular form), brush holders, epitaph tablets, and water droppers in animal or fruit shapes were common. Sometimes forms are deliberately made asymmetrical which is especially noticeable in moon jars and something which makes Korean ceramics distinct from Chinese or Japanese wares.
Korean White Porcelain Bottle
The minimalist designs on Korean white porcelain reflect the austere simplicity of Confucianism which was followed by the ruling class of Joseon, although earlier examples are more filled as with Chinese blue and white porcelain of the time. Designs include flowers (especially lotus, orchid, and chrysanthemum), plants, bamboo (symbolic of integrity as it grows straight and true), grass, grape vines, willow trees, plum trees, birds, deer, dragons, and clouds, and are usually inlaid in the same way as celadons. Blue (initially from cobalt and then a cheaper substitute known as 'Mohammedan blue') or a brown (from iron oxide) underglaze are the usual colours used to render the designs.
LEGACY
In the late 16th century CE many Korean potters and artists were forcibly taken to Japan following that country's invasion of the Korean peninsula in a conflict sometimes referred to as the 'Pottery Wars.' These artists, already admired for their white porcelain, would have a significant influence on Japanese Satsuma ware. Ancient Korean pottery still lives on today, too.Modern workshops using traditional methods are once again producing celadon ceramics, especially in the 16 kilns of Gangjin, where there is an annual celadon festival. Meanwhile, original celadons, in particular, still attract huge interest from collectors and can fetch the highest prices at auction houses of any ceramics produced anywhere.
This article was made possible with generous support from the British Korean Society.
Han Dynasty › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
The Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) was one of the longest of China ’s major dynasties. In terms of power and prestige, the Han Dynasty in the East rivalled its almost contemporary Roman Empire in the West. With only minor interruptions it lasted a span of over four centuries and was considered a golden age in Chinese history especially in arts, politics and technology. All subsequent Chinese dynasties looked back to the Han period as an inspiring model of a united empire and self-perpetuating government.
THE ORIGINS OF THE HAN DYNASTY
In 202 BCE, Emperor Gaozu, whose given name was Liu Bang, became the first Han emperor after defeating the last rebellion against him. He had already been king of Han since 206 BCE (the formal beginning of the Han dynasty). During the previous dynasty, the Qin, Liu Bang had been a minor official. The Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE) was very short and cruel; by the time it collapsed, Liu Bang had raised an army and claimed the vacant throne. He was not the only one in the quest for power, and one of his most important opponents was a general named Xiang Yu (also known as Xiang Ji). We are told that Xiang Yu captured Liu Bang's father and sent a final warning to Liu Bang, assuring that his father would be boiled alive unless Liu Bang surrendered. Liu Bang's answer suggests that he did not get along very well with his father: “Send me a cup of the soup”, he replied. In the end, Liu Bang's father was not turned into soup, and Xiang Yu decided to end his own life by committing suicide in 202 BCE. Some accounts say he was defeated in battle, while others tells us he was never defeated in battle but was gradually undermined by the popular support for Liu Bang; Liu Bang was the first Chinese emperor who was originally a commoner.
Liu Bang established the imperial capital in the city of Chang'an, located 3 km northwest of modern Xi'an, which was chosen due to its strategic importance: it not only had a central position (all major roads converged in Chang'an), but it would also become the eastern end of the Silk Road. The city turned into the political, economic, military, and cultural centre of China and by 2 CE its population was nearly 250,000. In 195 BCE, upon Liu Bang's death, his empress Lü Zhi (also known as Lü Hou) tried to confiscate the empire for her own family. Her methods show a firm determination: she murdered several of Liu Bang's sons born to concubines, mutilated his favourite mistress and had her thrown into a latrine. She also replaced with her own relatives many of the loyal generals and members of Liu Bang's family who ruled the fiefdoms. The conflict lasted for 15 years, until finally the Liu Bang clan regained control of the empire: Emperor Wen, a surviving Liu Bang son, was finally enthroned re-establishing the broken lineage. The imperial wrath was ruthless: the Lius killed every single member of Lü Zhi's clan they managed to find.
ACHIEVEMENTS DURING THE HAN DYNASTY
During Han times, pulleys and wheelbarrows were used to move goods. To pulverize ores and grains, they employed the water-powered trip-hammer and air was pumped into furnaces thanks to the aid of bellows.
THE OPENING OF THE SILK ROAD WAS PROBABLY THE MAJOR ECONOMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF THE HAN DYNASTY.
It was a eunuch named Cai Lun who, around 105 CE, came up with an innovation that would be invaluable for learning. A screen was dipped into a vat of watery oatmeal-like pulp made of rice straw and inner tree bark. When the screen was raised, it had a layer of dripping slush on top, which was later pressed and dried. The end result was a sheet of paper. However, during Han times, paper was used largely to wrap fish rather than for written documents. Just a few written paper sheets survived to our days from Han times, mostly found in tombs. Tens of thousands of written documents have come down to our day, most of them on wooden tablets and slips of bamboo. Examples include mathematical problems, historical records, poetry, government records, a massive dictionary, and the oldest surviving large-scale census of all history, which reports 57,671,400 people in 2 CE. All these documents have been critical in our fairly good historical knowledge of the Han dynasty.
The largest Chinese historiographic work, known as the “Records of the Grand Historian”, was written during the Han Dynasty by Sima Qian, who is referred to as the father of Chinese historiography. This work is a vast general history of China which covers a period of over 2,000 years, from the mythical times of the Yellow Emperor (the founder of the first Chinese dynasty, the Xia) to his own time during the reign of Emperor Wu (also known as Wu Di) who reigned between 141 and 87 BCE.
The opening of the Silk Road was probably the major economic achievement of the Han Dynasty. Emperor Wu took the initiative to set out on diplomatic missions to various rulers in Central Asia. This led to the exploration of trade routes that linked Xi'an to the Levant coast on the Mediterranean and opened up new roads for merchants. This increased the trade and economic prosperity of the empire and also led to a constant cultural exchange between several cultures.
It was also during Wu Di's time that China incorporated the whole of modern China proper, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and most of Korea.
Map of the Eastern Hemisphere (1 CE)
THE SACK OF CHAN'GAN
Wang Man was a government official and a member of a powerful family who took control of the empire by usurping the throne and proclaiming the the beginning of a new dynasty called Xin, or “new”, in 9 CE. He took advantage of the fact that since the time Emperor Wu died in 87 BCE, the Han Dynasty had been immersed in various political and social conflicts. The gap between rich and poor was already a serious problem. Sima Qian reports about this period that exploiters “were busy accumulating wealth and forcing the poor into their hire”. The court was also affected by complicated political turmoil: endless accusations, executions, treason, and battles were weakening the government.
Wang Man wanted to re-establish the social order by changing the land owning structure: he decreed that those large estates which had been favoured in the past (and threatened imperial power), be dissolved and their lands distributed among peasants, an initiative firmly opposed by the aristocracy. The 14 years of unsuccessful attempts to amend the unfair landownership pattern, coupled with a terrible flooding of the Yellow River, set the stage for Wang Man's end: a full-scale peasant rebellion was triggered. The angry mobs of hungry peasant insurgents had their own identity badge: red paint smeared on their foreheads. The rebels thus were known as the “Red Eyebrows”. Wang Man tried to restore order, but late in 23 CE the Red Eyebrows entered Chang'an, sacked it, and cut off Wang Man's head. Liu Xiu, a ninth-generation descendant of Liu Bang, took back control of the empire thus re-establishing the Han lineage. Liu Xiu led his loyal officials to the city of Luoyang, where the imperial capital was relocated after the disaster of Chang'an.
The Han reign in Chang'an is usually referred to as Western Han or Former Han, while the period in Luoyang is normally called Eastern Han or Later Han.
A Chinese Servant Statue
THE LAST DAYS OF THE HAN DYNASTY
By the end of the 1st century CE, one Han emperor after another had died either young or without a chosen heir. When an emperor died without sons, a close relative, such as his cousin, was named emperor. In some cases the new ruler was a child or even an infant, in which case the real power was in the hands of a guardian from the family of the empress, since even infant rulers had to have an empress. This scenario led to all types of cunning schemes in the court.
A number of different natural calamities such as tremors, floods, and grasshopper plagues took place during these days and were seen as manifestations of the anger of heaven; prognosticators concluded that the end of the dynasty was close. The situation finally ran out of control. Eunuchs turned into an influential group in the bloody political court conflicts, gaining power and enriching themselves and there was a big protest of thousands of members of the Confucian academy against the corruption of the government. In 184 CE a very large peasant uprising known as the Yellow Turban Rebellion (sometimes referred to as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion) threatened the imperial capital.
A warlord named Dong Zhou seized control of the imperial capital in 190 CE and placed a child, Liu Xie, as the new ruler. Liu Xie was also a member of the Han family, but real power was in the hands of Dong Zhou. Dong Zhou killed all the eunuchs and burned Luoyang to the ground. Battle after battle weakened the imperial order until Liu Xie finally abdicated in 220 CE, the last year of the Han period. Wars between warlords and states continued and China would have to wait around 350 years to be unified again.
THE LEGACY OF THE HAN DYNASTY
The Han Dynasty has influenced the East just like Greece or Rome has influenced the West. The biggest Chinese historiographic work of antiquity was written during this period. Chinese calligraphy developed into an art. Confucianismwas made the official state ideology during the time of Emperor Wu Di, who built an academy solely devoted to the works of Confucius. The philosopher had long been dead, but his disciples managed to preserve his teachings. Confucianism, favoured by the patronage of the state, gained a strength similar to Buddhism during the time of Emperor Ashoka or Christianity after Constantine. Thousands of Confucian academies were built, spreading Confucian ethics across China and most of East Asia and would dominate Chinese ethics during the centuries to come. Even today, the ethnic Chinese refer to themselves as Han rem (Han people). Although history tells us, then, that the Han Dynasty ended in 220 CE, from the examples cited above it is clear that the Han still lives on today in many different forms.
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