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Saint Cyril › Antique Origins
Definition and Origins
Saint Cyril (aka Kyrillos and Constantine the Philosopher, d. 867 CE) was a Byzantine linguist, teacher, scholar and missionary who famously preached Christianity to the Slavs in Moravia with his brother Methodius during the 9th century CE.He created the Glagolitic alphabet, the forerunner to the Cyrillic alphabet that bears his name, and did much to spread the religion, art and culture of the Byzantine empire into central Europe.
EARLY LIFE
Cyril is the monastic name the saint chose near the end of his life but he was born Constantine, the son of a military officer called Leo stationed in Thessaloniki ; his mother may have been a Slav. He was a gifted linguist from an early age and was sent to Constantinople to further his education and study such languages as Syriac and Hebrew. Looked after by the eunuch Theoktistos, Cyril was ordained as a priest and served as an official at the Hagia Sophia church where he developed a close relationship with the Patriarch of Constantinople, the bishop Photios. The brilliant scholar quickly became the bishop's librarian.Cyril became a teacher of philosophy at the Magnaura university in Constantinople where he gained the epithet “Constantine the Philosopher”.
Cyril was next sent on two diplomatic missions, the first to the Muslim court at Samarra and the second to the Khazars, a Turkic tribe in the Caucasus, c. 860 CE. According to Cyril's 9th century CE biography, attributed to one of his disciples, the scholar monk was enthusiastic for the opportunity to spread the Gospel:
If you command, lord, on such a mission I shall gladly go on foot and unshod, lacking all the Lord forbade Hi disciples to bring.' The emperor answered, saying,: 'Well spoken, were you to do this [on your own]! But bear in mind the imperial power and honour, and go honourably and with imperial help.Life of Constantine (in Shepard, 315)
CYRIL, TO FACILITATE HIS PREACHING TO THE SLAVS, INVENTED THE GLAGOLITIC SCRIPT WHICH USED SOME LETTERS FROM HEBREW & GREEK.
The trip, unfortunately, ended in failure if it had intended to convert the Khazars to Christianity as the Byzantines only managed to baptise around 200 of them. The Khazaria state eventually adopted Judaism instead. Cyril did bring back souvenirs, though, said to be the relics of the exiled 1st century CE Bishop of Rome, Saint Clement. His ambitions were not dampened either as he promptly set off of his own accord into the Crimea to spread his message to the heathen Phoullai people. It is likely Cyril was not any more popular there, though, especially when he chopped down their sacred oak tree.
MISSION TO MORAVIA
Cyril was then selected by the Byzantine emperor Michael III (r. 842-867 CE) for a mission to Moravia (the modern Czech Republic and Slovakia) to spread the Christian faith. No doubt his ability to speak Slavic was a point in his favour and it would certainly come in useful. Prince Rastislav (r. 846-870 CE), eager to establish his own independent church using the Slavic language and ward off the encroaching Frankish Empire, had requested such a mission and Michael, happy to oblige, sent Cyril and his older brother Methodius in 863 CE, although neither held ecclesiastical office at the time. Michael was probably encouraged by Photios, the bishop of Constantinople, eager to keep pace with his great religious rival the Pope in Rome, who had himself just sent Frankish missionaries to the region. Indeed, although Cyril and Methodius have gained the reputation as the “Apostles to the Slavs”, they were by no means the first Christian missionaries to that people.
Glagolitic Script
Cyril, to facilitate his preaching to the Slavs, invented, with some help from Methodius, the Glagolitic script which used some letters from Hebrew and Greek cursive writing to accurately capture the unique sounds of the Slavic language. The brothers had created the script before they even left home (the Slavic language having no written form previously) and used it to make translations of the liturgy of John Chrysostomos (Bishop of Constantinople from 398 to 404 CE), the Psalms of the Old Testament and the Gospels of the New Testament.
How is it that you now teach and have created letters for the Slavs, which none have found before?Methodius asks Cyril, Life of Constantine (in Herrin, 131)
Although he succeeded in setting up many new churches, unfortunately for Cyril, Frankish bishops in Moravia who were pushing the case for the rival western half of the Christian church opposed his missionary work at every step. Conservative church clergy were also against the holding of services (or even disseminating religious literature ) in any language outside the traditional trio of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The Frankish monks were steaming ahead with their Latin services to Slav congregations who understood not a word of the proceedings. Cyril and Methodius, meanwhile, were conducting theirs in Slavic, and in order to receive the blessing of Pope Adrian II, they held the mass in Latin first and then in Slavic.
As Cyril himself remarks on the importance of using local languages to communicate God's message:
We know of numerous peoples who possess writing, and render glory unto God, each in his own tongue. Surely these are obvious: Armenians, Persians, Abkhasians, Iberians, Sogdians, Goths, Avars, Turks, Khazars, Arabs, Egyptians and many others…Falls not God's rain upon all equally? And shines not the sun also upon all?Life of Constantine (in Herrin, 133)
DEATH & LEGACY
Cyril died in Rome in 867 CE on a mission to enlist the Pope's backing for his work in central Europe and to have some of his Slav disciples ordained. The traveller first presented the new pope, Hadrian II, with the relics of Saint Clement. The Moravians were then ordained and Slavonic scriptures donated to the church of St Maria and Praesepe. Cyril was buried in the shrine of San Clemente in the city.
The late missionary' s work was continued in Moravia by Methodius who went on to invent the Cyrillic alphabet (although it may have been created by his disciple Clement of Ohrid). This new writing, named in honour of Cyril, was derived from the Greek alphabet and was simpler than the rather intricate Glagolitic. A biography of Cyril was written shortly after his death, probably by his follower and fellow evangelist to the Slavs, Clement of Ohrid. The Cyrillic alphabet would itself inspire the script used in Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian and Macedonian.
Ultimately, the Moravians, pressured by the Franks, rejected the Byzantine church in favour of the western church. The favourable Rastislav had been succeeded by a less sympathetic ruler and Methodius and his followers were expelled from Moravia in 885 CE. Still, the experience gained by the missionaries and their library of translated texts were put to good use in their next port of call -Bulgaria, where Slavic was also spoken. Michael III pressed the case of Byzantine political and religious dominance there by assembling a menacing army on Bulgaria's border. The Bulgar ruler Boris was thus persuaded to favour the Byzantines and he travelled to Constantinople in 864 CE to be baptised in the Hagia Sophia by the emperor himself.
Lysistrata › Ancient History
Definition and Origins
Lysistrata was the third and final of the peace plays written by the great Greek comic playwright Aristophanes (c. 445 - c. 386 BCE). Shown in 411 BCE at the Lenaea festival in Athens, it was written during the final years of the war between Athens and Sparta. The play is essentially a dream about peace. Many Greeks believed the war was bringing nothing but ruin to Greece, making it susceptible to Persian attack. So, in Aristophanes' play, the wives and mothers of the warring cities, led by the Athenian Lysistrata, came together with an ingenious solution. In order to force peace, the women decided to go on strike. This was not a typical work stoppage. Instead, there was to be no romantic relations of any kind with their husbands.Further, by occupying the Acropolis, home of the Athenian treasury, the women controlled access to the money necessary to finance the war. Together with the withholding of sex, both sides would soon be begging for peace.
ARISTOPHANES
As the author of at least forty plays, only eleven of which have survived, Aristophanes is considered by many to be the greatest poet of Greek comedy. Unfortunately, his works are the only examples to remain intact. By the time Aristophanes began to write, Greek theatre was in serious decline. However, much of the presentation of drama remained the same. There was the usual chorus of 24 as well as three actors who wore grotesque masks and costumes.
Aristophanes
Little is known of his early life. Having most of his plays written between 427 and 386 BCE helps place his death around 386 BCE. A native of Athens, he was the son of Philippus and owned land on the island of Aegina. He had two sons, one of which became a playwright of minor comedies. Although participating little in Athenian politics, he was an outspoken critic, via his plays, of the Peloponnesian War. His portrayal and attack of the statesman Cleon in the play The Babylonians landed him in court in 426 BCE.
ARISTOPHANES' PLAYS, WITH THEIR SIMPLICITY & VULGARITY, WERE RECOGNIZED & APPRECIATED FOR THEIR RICH FANTASY AS WELL AS HUMOR & INDECENCY.
Although somewhat quiet on the subject of Athenian politics, Aristophanes opposed all changes in the traditional aspects of philosophy, education, poetry, and music. He was an outspoken critic of both the philosopher Socrates and his fellow playwright Euripides. Norman Cantor in his book Antiquity said the playwright reflected the conservative opinion of many Athenians, showing them to be people who valued old simplicity and morality. They viewed all new innovations as being subversive. His plays were a mixture of humor, indecency, gravity, and farce. Editor Moses Hadas in his book Greek Dramasaid while Aristophanes could write poetry that was delicate and refined, he could also, at the same time, demonstrate bawdiness and gaiety. Author Edith Hamilton, in her The Greek Way, said that all of life could be seen in the plays of Aristophanes; politics, war, pacifism, and religion.
Although Aristophanes is sometimes condemned for bringing drama down from the high level of Aeschylus, his plays, with their simplicity and vulgarity, were recognized and appreciated for their rich fantasy as well as humor and indecency. His comedy was a blend of wit and invention.
BACKGROUND & CHARACTERS
Athens was a city of unrest as Spartan armies loomed nearby. People were outraged at their ineffective leadership in both city government and on the battlefield. All of this served as ammunition for Aristophanes' play. In Lysistrata, the women of both Athens and Sparta go on strike to force the men to stop the war and make peace. Through the outspoken hero of the play, Lysistrata, Aristophanes is provided an avenue for his anti-war views. To him, war provided men with the opportunity for courage and a glorious death. Women, on the other hand, were immune. To them, war could only bring decades of misery as a bereaved wife or mother.
The play had a rather large cast of characters:
- Lysistrata
- Calonice
- Myrrhine
- Stratyllis
- the Spartan Lampito
- choruses of old men and women
- a magistrate
- three old women
- four young women
- Myrrhine's husband Cinesias
- a Spartan herald
- a Spartan peace delegate
- two Athenian peace delegates
- and a number of silent characters.
PLOT
The play opens outside the Athenian homes of Lysistrata and her friend Calonice; one can see the Acropolis in the background. Lysistrata is obviously very anxious, looking right and left, waiting for the arrival of her friends:
…I'm really disappointed in womankind. All our husbands think we're such clever villains … I've called a meeting to discuss a very major matter, and they're all still fast asleep. (Sommerstein, 141)
Calonice tries to calm her, telling her that it is difficult for women to get out of the house, for they have much to do. She had spent several sleepless nights thinking about the problem before arriving at a solution. She is frantic. The whole future of the country - all of the Peloponnese and Athens - rests with them. Turning to Calonice, Lysistrata says:
… we women have the salvation of all Greece in our hands [...] I am going to bring it about that no man, for at least a generation, will raise a spear against another. (142)
As other women arrive, including the Spartan Lampito, Lysistrata chides them for being late. She poses a question if she found a way to end the war would they join her. Cautiously, they agree. She divulges her plan; the women are to renounce sex. If they do so, the men will become frustrated and surely make peace. Many, including Calonice, begin to walk away, thinking let the war continue. Believing it will bring peace, Lampito immediately agrees, and the others gradually side with her. To guarantee full cooperation they all must swear an oath.
Greek Erotic Scene
As they take their oath, a loud shout of triumph rings out from the Acropolis; the citadel of Athena was now in their hands.Their plan was fairly simple. They were to occupy the Acropolis, and even if the men tried to take it by force, they would only submit on their terms. They plan is soon tested as a group of men arrives with crowbars and torches to break down the barred doors. They are joined by a small assembly of women, headed by the elderly Stratyllis, carrying pitchers of water. She turns to her comrades:
What have we here? A gang of male scum, that's what! No man who had any decency, or any respect for the gods, would behave like this! (154)
The male leader spins around, threatening her. She does not back down and along with the other women throw water on the men, extinguishing their torches. As they continue to argue - the leader calls her an old relic while she calls him an old corpse - a magistrate arrives with two slaves and several other officers. He exclaims:
Look at the way we pander to women's vices - we positively teach them to be wicked. That's why we get this sort of conspiracy. (156)
Lysistrata emerges from behind the door:
What's the use of crowbars? It's not crowbars we need, it's intelligence and common sense. (157)
One of the officers attempts to grab Lysistrata. As the magistrate and his officers attempt to charge the doors, Lysistrata calls for more women to come out. They charge the officers, punching and kicking. Beaten, the men pull back. The women withdraw inside the Acropolis. In desperation, the magistrate finally turns to Lysistrata and asks why they have barred themselves inside.Lysistrata tells him they want to stop the men from waging war. As they continue to argue Lysistrata finally says:
…we're in the prime of our lives, and how can we enjoy it, with our husbands always away on campaign and us left at home like widows? (164)
Unfortunately, she begins to realize that some of the women are losing loyalty to the cause. One husband, Cinesias, comes to the Acropolis, begging for his wife, Myrrhine, to come home. Despite his enticements, she refuses and returns to the other women. As he curses his wife, a Spartan herald approaches, claiming he is there to discuss a settlement. Cinesias tells him to return to Sparta and bring delegates with full power while he goes to the Council and asks for Athenian delegates.
The Spartan delegation arrives and is soon joined by Athenian delegates. They ask to speak to Lysistrata. She rebukes both sides:
Thus each of you is in the other's debt: Why don't you stop this war, this wickedness? Yes, why don't you make peace? What's in the way? (187)
She leads them into the Acropolis for food and drink and to discuss the terms of peace. In the end, she turns to the Spartans:
Well, gentlemen, so it's all happily settled, Spartans, here are your wives back …. now form up everyone, man beside wife and wife beside man, and let us have a dance of thanksgiving. (191)
CONCLUSION
Lysistrata is a play about peace. As with many of Aristophanes' plays, he used his characters to act as his voice. He detested the war and the effect it had on his beloved Athens. Since the war ended shortly after the play was produced, this became his third and final plea for peace. In the play, unlike reality, peace was miraculously negotiated, and the war came to a glorious end with both sides gathering together to eat and dance. The hero of the play, Lysistrata (whose name means "Liquidator of Armies") is a remarkable protagonist for many reasons. She demonstrates both a strong will and determination; she chastises her fellow women for their tardiness and later makes them take an oath to ensure their commitment. She faces the magistrate and calmly voices her demands; a plea for intelligence, not crowbars. As a woman, she realizes that she has little, if any, voice in the policy-making. However, she understands men, and through her resourcefulness, she is able to bring the two sides together to make peace.
LICENSE:
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